SB 353 
.B75 
Copy 1 



P?e CULTIVATED 

MUSHROOM 




PRICE, ONE DOLLAR 



COPYRIGHT. 1913 

BY 

Bureau of Mushroom Industry 
Chicago. U. S. A. 



Published and Copyrighted, 1913 
by 

BUREAU OF MUSHROOM INDUSTRY' 

1.U2 North Clark Street 
Chicago, V. S. A. 



MUSHROOM 



Q 



\B 



ai 




PRICE, ONE DOLLAR 



COPYRIGHT. 1913 

BY 

BiiRKAU OF Mushroom iNnrsTRv 

riiicAr.o, U. S. A. 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



3S. 



C 



^^ 



Page 

1 . Frontispiece • 1 

2. The Cultivated Mushroom 3 

3. Small Growing Cluster 7 

4. Agaricus Campestris, Brown (Bohemia) 11 

5. Agaricus Campestris, Cream 15 

(). Ventilator ■ 16 

7. Agaricus Campestris, White (Alaska) 19 

S. Ridge Beds in Cave or Tunnel 22 

9. A Flat Bed in a Barn 23 

10. Shelf Beds in Cellar 24 

1 1 . Flat Beds in Cave or Tunnel 25 

12. Coprinus Comatus 32 

13. Cluster of 50 Mushrooms on One Root 33 

14. Baskets of Large Mushrooms 34 

15. A Bed of Over 2 Lbs. per Sq. Ft 35 

10. vShipping Crate 36 

17. Pure Culture Brick Spawn 43 

18. Bed of Mushrooms from Old Spawn 44 

19. Mushroom House partly Underground 47 

20. A Large Mushroom Plant 48 

21. Mushroom Fly 72 

22. Steaming Box 74 

23. The Mushroom Mite 75 

24. Common Springtail 77 

25. The Greenhouse Pillbug, extended 79 

26. The Greenhouse Pillbug, contracted 79 

27. Dooryard Sowbug 79 

28. Amanita Phalloides 86 

29. Amanita Verna 87 

30. Amanita Solitaria 88 

31. Amanita Muscaria 90 

32. Diploma, St. Louis Exposition 93 

33. Trademark .*'"..; 95 

34. Thermometer '-.' 96 

35. Hygrometer 96 

36. Sprayer 97 

37. Mushroom box, ventilated ' 98 

Mushroom box, knocked down 99 

©^Cl.A;i50246 



I 




THE CULTIVATED MUSHROOM 



(Illustrated) 



PRICE, ONE DOLLAR 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Page 
PREFACE 5 

PART I— PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

The Cultivated Mushroom 7 

Essential Conditions ; 8 

Temperature 9 

Moisture 11 

Ventilation 14 

Preparation of the Compost 16 

Installation of the Beds , 21 

Spawning 26 

Casing the Beds 28 

Watering 30 

Picking and Preparing for Market 31 

Market Conditions 37 

Old Beds .-.38 

Open-air Culture 39 

Mushroom Spawn 41 

Mushroom Enemies 45 

Construction of Mushroom Houses 47 

How to Cook Mushrooms 50 

How to Preserve Mushrooms 53 

The Canning of Mushrooms 55 

PART II--TECHNICAL STUDIES. 

The Compost 59 

Ferments 70 

Injurious Insects 73 

Stains 81 

Amanita 86 

PART III— SPAWN AND SUPPLIES. 

Pure Culture Spawn 92 

Thermometers '. . . 96 

Hygrometers 96 

Sprayers 97 

Mushroom boxes (cartons) 98 

INDEX 101 



PREFACE 



Up to a comparatively recent period the various methods of 
raising mushrooms were based on "bHnd customs." Groping in 
the dark, guided only by custom, and probably by many failures, 
mushroom growers would, each for himself, evolve some method 
of raising mushrooms. The natural laws governing the bacterial 
and chemical reactions in the compost, mycelial growth, ])arasi- 
Lic molds, etc., were little understood. Methods were based on 
observations of effect without definite relation to cause, and, in 
some cases, even on superstitious traditions. The old text books 
dealing with the subject merely reflect the obsolete ideas of mush- 
room growers then prevailing; they contain little information on 
the underlying principles of mushroom culture, and therefore offer 
no suggestions of improvement in cultural methods. These books 
are reprinted from time to time, without change, and, with a new 
date, are again placed on the market. 

Meanwhile, science has invaded the domain of mushroom cul- 
ture and, within the last few years, has made wonderful progress. 
The secrets of nature have to a large extent been exposed, and the 
way has been paved for rational improvement in cultural methods 
and for the intelligent control of essential conditions. The ele- 
ment of uncertainty has been greatly reduced, and unifomi re- 
sults are now possible. 

The object of this book is to collate and present to the public 
the latest discoveries of science in mushroom culture. Exploded fal- 
lacies and superstitious ideas are omitted from its pages; modem 
methods, tested by our most progressive growers, alone are given. 
Quotations aie from the leading scientists on the various subjects. 

We arc indebted for much valuable material to the U. vS. De- 
partment of Agriculture, the staff of the American Spawn Company 
and the various scientists named in the notes. 

BURKAU OF MUSHROOM IXDISTRY 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

We are indebted to the American Spawn Company 
and their several publications for many illustrations con- 
tained in this book. All mushrooms shown in the half- 
tones following this page were raised from "Lambert's 
Pure Culture Spawn." We make this statement in view 
of the fact that some of these illustrations have been 
copied and used without authority by persons advertising 

other grades of spawn. 

B. M. I. 



PART I 
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 




THE CULTIVATED MUSHROOM 

While nature produces countless varieties 
of fungi, a comparatively small numbei are 
well known, and but one or two species are 
cultivated. The edible variety universally 
known to epicures is Agaricus or Pratella 
campestris, so called because of its habit of 
growing in meadows and pastures. It is to 
this fleshy species that the commercial term 
' 'mushroom " generally has reference . 

The mushroom has been cultivated for many centuries in all 
parts of the civilized world; and, in its fresh state or in canned 
fomi, it has become a very important article of diet. In the 
United States it may be said that the mushroom industry is still 
in its infancN-fe although millions of pounds of canned mushrooms 
are annually imported. However, within the last few years, a 
steady and ever increasing demand for fresh mushrooms at good 
prices has induced many people of moderate means to devote some 
of their spare time in producing mushrooms for the market. 

Extracts from the reports of Dr. B. M. Dugg.^r, of the Department of Agriculture: 
THE CULTIVATED MUSHROOM 

In the United States the term "mushroom" refers commercially to but 
a single species (Agaricus campestris) of the fleshy fungi, a plant common 
throughout most of the temperate regions of the world, and one everywhere 
recognized as edible. From the time of PUny, and perhaps much earlier, this 
plant has been sought as an article of diet, and it has been cultivated for many 
centuries. In the vicinity of Paris it has certainly been cultivated in some 
quantity since the sixteenth century; and, in paintings of market-scenes by 
old masters of the seventeenth century, a basket of mushrooms frequently 
finds a place in the composition, thus showing that at that time the sale of 
mushrooms was generally recognized in a commercial way 



PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 



The cultivated mushroom belongs to a class of Crytogams; 
it is a member of the gill-fungus group, which is itself a subdivision 
of the group of basidium fungi. The mushroom assimilates 
oxygen and throws off carbonic acid gas ; it differs in that respect 
from other plants. This important distinction plays an important 
part in cultural methods, and should be carefully noted. (See 
article on "Ventilation.") 

ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS 

Contrary to a prevailing opinion, there is nothing mysterious 
in the cultivation of the mushroom. Any one with a fair under- 
standing of its cultural requirements can grow this plant success- 
fully. As stated in a previous publication, mushrooms inay be 
grown anywhere, at any time and by any one where the following 
conditions fairly obtain: 

1. Good fresh spawn. 

2. A properly prepared bed with reasonable protection against 
weather extremes. 

8. A temperature not greatly exceeding 60° F., nor much lower 
than 50° F. 



The fully expanded plant, or mature mushroom (sporophore), of Agaricus 
campestris is well known to every one. It consists of a centrally placed 
stock or stipe of from 2 to 6 inches in height, usually not more than one inch 
in diameter, and on the end of this stipe there is borne an umbrella-shaped or 
cap-shaped portion known as the cap or pileus. The diamej^r and thickness 
of this pileus vary in different races or varieties of the cultivated form, and also 
with the conditions of the environment under which it is produced. The gen- 
eral color of the plant varies in the different varieties from an almost pure 
white, or cream, to the forms which are deep brown, at least with reference 
to the upper surface of the cap. The stem is usually cream or white, and bears 
on its upper extremity near the cap a ring known as the annulus, which an- 
nulus forms a covering and a protecting layer for the delicate under-surface 
of the cap, to the edges of which it was attached previous to the rapid ex- 
pansion and maturity of the latter. The under surface of the cap is provided 
with leaf-like or gill-like projections, reaching for the most part from the stem 
to the periphery of the cap. These are termed gills, or "lamellae." They 
are constantly pink in color in the white or cream-colored species up to the 
time of (and sometimes even a day after) the separation of the ring from the 
cap. Subsequently, these gills turn brown and even a deep brownish black. 
In the brown variety the gills are at first grayish brown but they also become 
almost black with age. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

In the United States, fresh mushrooms have only recently been of any im- 
portance commercially, although florists and gardeners of English and French 
training have long been successful growers on a small scale. Nevertheless, 
during the past decade or so, the record of failures has been most conspicuous, 
and it is certain that, of the many who attempted this work, only a few, 
relatively, were uniformly successful. 



TEMPERATURE 9 



4. A fairly moist atmo.s]jhcre, avoidin^^ llie frequent and di- 
rect ajiplication of water to the beds. 

5. A gradual renewal of the air, avoiding draughts. 

In the following ])ages we will review these essential conditions 
and explain their relation to the growth and development of the 
mushroom. 

TEMPERATURE 

One of the all-im])orlanl and controlling elements in mushroom 
culture is that of temperature — both the temperature of the at- 
mosphere in the musliroom house and the temperature of the beds 
at spa\vning. In this article the temperature of the atmosphere 
alone will be considered, the other subject being treated under 
its appropriate head. The temperature of the mushroom house 
should be high enough to favor the growth of the spawn and 
sporophores, and yet be low enough to prevent the rapid develop- 
ment of their bacterial, insect and parasitic enemies. Experience 
has shown that the extreme range of temperature for profitable 

The conditions under which mushrooms may be successfully grown are 
Hmited, and intelhgent attention is therefore essentiaL It must be said, 
moreover, that the majority of failures may be directly traced to erroneous 
ideas as to the cultural requisites, or to a reckless disregard of conditions. 
The essential conditions will be subsequently defined in detail, but it may be 
stated here that failures are usually due to one or more of the following causes: 
(1) Poor spawn; (2) very poor manure; (.3) unfavorable temperature; and 
(4) heavy watering during the early stages of growth. 

Under suitable conditions mushrooms may be grown with assurance of 
success. Ordinarily they are grown only where the conditions may be con- 
trolled, and success should therefore be invariable. 

TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE 

Mushrooms may be grown in any place where the conditions of temperature 
and moisture are favorable. A shed, cellar, cave, or vacant space in a green- 
house may be utilized to advantage for this purpose. The most essential 
factor, perhaps, is that of temperature. The proper temperature ranges 
from 53° to 60° F., with the best from 55° to 58° F. It is unsafe to 
attempt to grow mushrooms on a commercial basis, according to our present 
knowledge of the subject, at a temperature much less than 50° or greater 
than G3° F. Any severe changes of temperature retard growth, or else 
act injuriously, and many changes of temperature would entirely destroy the 
profits of the mushroom crop. From this it is evident that in many places 
mushrooms may not be grown as a summer crop. With artificial heat they 
may be grow^n almost anywhere during the winter. Moreover, it is very prob- 
able that in this country open-air culture must be limited to a few sections, and 
restricted, commercially at least, to a single season. 

It is very probable that the exact temperature which may be considered an 
optimum will vary somewhat in different sections of the country. It will be 
noted later in detail that the temperature factor acts not so directly upon the 
growth of the spawn or the production of mushrooms, as indirectly, to render 
some other conditions of the environment injurious. It is best to consider 
that in practice the optimum temperature for mushroom growing varies from 
53° to 58° F. 



10 PRACTICAL* CONSIDERATIONS 

growing is from 53° to 63° F., with the optimum at from 55° 
to 58° F. At the latter temperature the enemies of the mushroom 
are rather dormant or sluggish and will do correspondingly less 
damage. At lower temperatures the growth of the mushrooms 
will be arrested, but no harm will result. When the temperature 
rises again, and the necessary moisture is restored, a vigorous 
growth may be expected. At the higher temperatures irrepar- 
able damage will be inflicted, and a poor and unsalable crop will 
be the result. It is therefore essential that the temperature be 
constantly and closely watched. For maximum results, it would 
seem that a measure of control over the temperature is necessary. 
The dispositions to be made in that respect vary in different cli- 
mates. It is a comparatively easy task to raise the temperature 
of the mushroom house to 55° or 58° when the outside temperature 
is below that mark. The judicious disposition of a few hot- 
water pipes will acomplish that result. This makes it possible 
to raise mushrooms in nearly all climates during the fall, winter 
and early spring. In the summer time, however, in climates where 
the atmosphere is usually above 60°, the problem becomes more 
complex, and involves artificial refrigeration. Those growers, 
however, who are fortunate enough to have at their disposal 
caves, cool cellars, abandoned mines or tunnels, where the tem- 
perature uniformly ranges below 60°, can grow mushrooms the 
year around, and especially in the summer months when the re- 
duced supply has raised the market price. The question of mois- 
ture is also more easily solved in the summer, for the reasons 
outlined under the subject of "Moisture." 



It was soon definitely ascertained that the conditions of pure culture growth 
are essentially different from those attending the growth of mushroom spawn 
in the bed. This was perhaps best indicated by comparing spawn grown in 
pots at 85° F. under impure conditions with similiar spawn grown at 50° 
F. At the former temperature, even though the conditions of moisture 
were properly maintained, there was little or no growth. Foreign fungi, 
molds, and bacteria, as well as insects, were, however, abundant. At the 
lower temperature there was little or no evident appearance of other fungi, 
molds or insects; yet the mushroom spawn grows slowly and continuously 
so long as other conditions are maintained. From numerous experiments of 
this nature, it is apparent that the temperature relation is one which is govern- 
ed by the competition to which the mushroom spawn is subject in the bed. 
This is, of course, wholly in accord with the results obtained from the study 
of the relative growth made by mushroom spawn in fresh and composted man- 
ure. 

The statement previously mide, therefore, that the optimum temperature 
may vary slightly in different localities is true on account of the fact that the 
mites, insects, and other animal pests of mushroom growing may vary consider- 
ably in different localities, or under different conditions, even though there 



Ti:MPii;RATURi<: 




05 



o 



12 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

MOISTURE 

The mushroom, Hke most other fresh vegetables, contains a 
large proportion of water. It is therefore necessary ■ that water 
in some form be supplied to it at the various stages of its growth. 
The bed, when properly prepared, contains enough moisture to 
supply the mycelium to the bearing period unless it has been robbed 
of its natural moisture by some of the agencies which we will 
consider. 

It must be remembered that the ambient air constituting the 
atmosphere, normally contains a certain amount of water vapor 
increasing with its temperature. When the air at a given tem- 
perature contains all the moisture which it can hold, it is said to 
be saturated. Beyond that point, the air will not absorb any 
more moisture, and the excess over the saturation point will be 
released in the shape of a mist or rain. As has been stated, the 
capacity of the atmospheric air for moisture increases greatly 
with its temperature. It follows from that rule, that air satur- 
ated with moisture at 80 or 90 degrees F. will release, by conden- 
sation, a portion of this moisture as soon as the temperature is 
lowered. Conversely, air saturated with moisture at 30 or 40 
degrees will, as soon as its temperature is raised, become hungry 
for moisture and take it from anything within its reach. This 
explains why the cold atmospheric air of the winter, with a normal 
moisture content for that temperature, as soon as it is introduced 
in a warm house, absorbs the moisture from the furniture and 
even from the throats of human beings living therein. Hence 
the necessity of supplying additional moisture to this warmed air, 
for the comfort of the inmates of the house. Again, it is ob- 
served in the summer that when the warm air strikes a colder 
surface, like a water pipe, a cave or a cold cellar, the saturation 

may not be a great variation, perhaps, in the bacterial and fungus flora of the 
compost upon which the mushrooms are grown. Certain insects, for example, 
are more abundant in a moist climate, but if special precautions can be taken 
to eliminate all such pests, the growth problem is confined to the interrela- 
tion existing between the mushroom spawn and the microscopic flora of the 
compost. Mushrooms grown in the open will probably show greater varia- 
tion with reference to the temperature factor than those grown in caves or 
cellars. 

The direct effect of a temperature above the optimum upon the sporophores 
is manifest through the lengthening of the stipes and rapid expansion of the 
caps, ordinarily accompanied by toughness and decreased size. In other words, 
the lower-grade market product is produced at the higher temperature. 

The moisture factor is also one of importance. It is undesirable that the 
place in which mushrooms are grown should be very damp, or dripping 



MOISTURE 13 



point is lowered and the excess of moisture is condensed on the 
cooler surface, causing dripping. 

Applying these principles to the mushroom house, it is cleaily 
seen that the inside atmosphere must be kept near the saturation 
point in order to prevent the air from robbing the beds and growing 
mushrooms of their moisture. This is an easy matter in the sum- 
nier, because the temperature of the outside air generally exceeds 
GO degrees F., and when brought into contact with the cooler air 
of the mushroom house, the saturation point is quickly reached 
and easily preserved, and there is no loss of humidity. In the 
winter, however, conditions are reversed. The outside air is 
colder and has therefore a lower moisture content. When in- 
troduced into the warmer mushroom house, the saturation point 
is raised and the newly introduced air proceeds immediately to 
borrow moisture from the beds. The problem is therefore to 
supply this air with enough moistiire to bring it near the satur- 
ation point and thus keep it from robbing the beds of their normal 
water content. This is done by different growers in various ways. 
The walls and alleys of the mushroom house may be liberally 
sprinkled. Some allow steam to escape in the mushroom house 
and thus provide it with the necessary heat and moisttire at the 
same time. This process is, however, hard on boilers unless rain 
water is used. The beds are sprinkled as a last resort, with a 
fine spray, and then preferably after a picking. It must be re- 
membered that while the mushroom requires a great deal of mois- 
ture, it is very sensitive to the direct application of water, and 
frequent sprinklings are liable to injure it. The mushroom 
breathes, so to say, and the too frequent application of water 
closes its pores and interferes with the breathing process. 

A proper supply of moisture is considered one of the essential 
requisites of successful growing. The disregard of these rules 
is responsible for poor yields and many failures. A reliable 
hygrometer should at all times be hanging in the mushroom house, 
and the percentage of humidity should never be allowed to drop 



with water. Nevertheless, a fairly moist condition of the atmosphere should 
be maintained throughout the growing and productive period. There should 
be a gradual, but slight, evaporation from the surface of the beds, and sufhcient 
ventilation to insure this is believed to be essential. It is certain that in 
poorly ventilated caves mushrooms do not succeed. On the other hand, in 
a dry atmosphere, or exposed to drying winds, mushroom beds soon cease to 
bear, while such sporophores as are developing may have their caps cracked 
or torn. 



14 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

below 70, for when the bed has once been robbed of its natural 
moisture it is well nigh impossible to properly restore it. Since 
a gradual renewal of the air in the mushroom house is necessary 
the moisture problem is ever present. 

VENTILATION 

Plants, generally, abstract carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide) 
from the air and decompose the gas, fixing the carbon that it 
contains and setting the oxygen free. Mushrooms, on the con- 
trary, seem to breathe like animals ; they absorb and assimilate the 
oxygen of the air, throwing off the carbonic acid. This funda- 
mental distinction should be well borne in mind, as it explains 
physiological phenomena which are often baffling to the mush- 
room grower. The quantity of oxygen consimied, and the cor- 
responding amount of carbonic acid thrown off by the mushroom 
are enormous. A single mushroom has been shown to exhale 
59 milligrams of carbonic acid in the short period of one and one- 
half hours. It is therefore observed in inushroom houses, where no 
provision has been made for a gradual renewal of the air, that the 
growth of the mushrooms is checked or sometimes arrested from 
the very start; they are said to "damp off", although this condition 
may also be induced by excessive watering or poorly prepared com- 
post. Hence the importance of proper ventilation in the mush- 
room house. 

The object of ventilation is to remove the carbonic acid thrown 
off by the mushrooms and incidentally to supply the oxygen so 
necessary to their development. Carbonic acid gas is about one 
and one-half times as heavy as air, and is found at the bottom 
of the mushroom house, in depressions, etc. The exhaust pipes 
of the ventilation system must therefore extend nearly to the 
grotmd where they can gather the carbonic acid and expel it from 
the house just as water is pumped from the hold of a ship. The 
gas so removed will, of course, be automatically replaced by fresh 
air containing a new supply of oxygen. 

Based on the above principles, the ventilating systems may vary 
according to the location and construction of the mushroom 
house. Where the floor of the house and the beds are above grade, 
it is possible to allow the carbonic acid gas to run off by gravity. 
But where the floor of the house is below grade, the heavier gas 
must be raised by suction or exhaust and discharged into the out- 
side atmosphere. This applies especially to mines, caves, tunnels 
and cellars. 



VENTILATION 



r 



15 



Specimen of EDIBLE MiSIIROOM /'JRIET/ES 

(iroicn from 

''LJM BERTS PURE CULTURE SPAWN'' 



^' 





Cream 



16 



PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 



Ventilation by suction or exhaust is effected by various methods. 
In all cases a shaft or flue is essential. The lower air strata are 

made to ascend therein by means of 
a suitable apparatus utilizing the wind 
velocity, or by the direct action of 
an exhaust fan. Some growers as- 
sist the draught in the chimney by 
building occasionally a fire at its base. 
Various devices designed to raise the 
column of air in the flues may be found 
on the market. The accompanying 
sketch will illustrate the principle in- 
volved, and the device may be easily 
constructed by any tinsmith. The 
number and size of these devices, re- 
quired for any particular building, 
depends, of course, upon it's size, con- 
struction and location. It is evident 
■however, that in large underground 
.mushroom plants, the positive action 
of an exhaust fan driven by power is 
almost a necessity. 
While a gradual renewal of the air, through ventilation, is es- 
sential to the healthy development of the mushroom, direct 
draughts on the beds should be avoided. Draughts will rob the 
beds and atmosphere of the mushroom house of much needed 
moisture, affect the growth of the mushrooms and cause the caps 
to check and crack and to assume a darker color. 

As will be explained in another chapter, ventilation is not with- 
out its influence on the temperature and moisture of the mushroom 
house. A thorough understanding of this relation and of the prin- 
ciples underlying it will often allow the intelligent grower to make 
use of his ventilating system in controlling or regulating essential 
conditions. He may, for instance, take advantage of cool nights 
to reduce the excessively high temperature in his mushroom house 
and close the ventilators when the outside temperature exceeds the 
optimum. 




V Zn 1 lLATOR_ 



PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST 

The cultivated mushroom is best grown on cured or composted 
horse manure. No practical substitute has been fotmd for this 



PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST 17 

material. It is the best, and also the cheapest. Mueh depends, 
however, on the selection of the manure. Tlie best manure is 
})rocurcd from stables where healthy, j^'rain-fed atid hard-working 
horses arc kept. The manure should contain a fair i)roportion 
of straw, well trampled, and saturated with urine; the latter is 
an essential element which is often lost in well-(h-ained barns. 
The material should be fresh; not over a week old. 

Manure from bams where horses are kept for pleasure only is 
not so desirable because the animals do not receive so much j^ain, 
and the straw and droppings are removed before they are thorough- 
ly impregnated with urine. Cow manure is unsuitable for the cul- 
tivation of mushrooms. Veterinary hospitals and bams where 
chemicals and disinfectants are freely used in the manure .should 
be avoided. Manure which has been heaped against an outside 
wall and has been washed or leached in a rainslomi hv the water 
from the roof, is of inferior quality. 

As soon as the manure is assembled, it should be well mixed 
and the dry jmrts should be sprinkled. It is then made up into 
a pile 3 or 4 feet in height. While the length and width of the 

PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST 

It is not to be understood that there is one and only one method of preparing 
compost for mushroom growing. Nor is it always necessary that the compost 
shall be in one particular stage of fermentation or decay. In fact, every change 
of condition elsewhere may necessitate a similar change in the amount of 
fermentation which may be most desirable. At the outset it should be un- 
derstood that it is not the "fermentation" that is absolutely essential. The 
"fermentation" is, of itself, a minor matter. 

The rapid oxidation action of bacteria, and perhaps of independent ferments, 
upon manure causes a considerable rise of temperature. At the higher tem- 
peratures (which may be maintained as long as there are present rapidly 
oxidizable food products) bacterial action is vigorous, and is unquestionably 
injurious to mycelial development. Wholly aside from the rise of temperature 
accompanying their activities, bacteria are otherwise injurious. In fact, 
manure which is put to test in a small test tube shows little or no rise of tem- 
perature above that of the place in w^hich it is incubated. Nevertheless, the 
mycelium of the mushroom will not grow under such conditions. Rapid bac- 
terial action is therefore prejudicial. Under those conditions where bacter- 
ial action is not rapid, fresh manure might be used to advantage; in other 
words, if the beds are so constructed that the manure ferments very gradually, 
without either excessive bacterial action or rise of temperature, then spawning 
might be made in fresh manure. 

The old belief that rotten manure does not have the necessary strength — 
that is, does not produce so vigorous a mushroom growth as that which has 
been less transformed by bacterial action — has been confirmed by practical 
experiments. This loss of effectiveness is probably due, in part, to a change in 
texture or to other physical changes. In well-rotted manure there is ample 
food material to support a very good growth of mycelium in pure cultures. 
This has been chemically proved by sterilizing such manure and growing 
mushroom spawn upon it in pure culture. Nevertheless, beds prepared with 
well-fermented manure and left for some time before spawning do not yield 
so well. It is beUeved that here the physical condition has much to do with 
the result. 



18 PRACTICAL Considerations 

piles are conventional, depending on circumstances and conven- 
ience of subsequent operations, the height is uniform and not less 
than three nor more than four feet. When too shallow, the pile 
will not heat enough; when too deep, it will heat too rapidly and 
dry out, and the progress of the fermentation will be arrested. 

When thus made up, the manure is left to ferment and heat 
for about a week. The pile is then broken up, the manure is 
again shaken, thoroughly mixed, and sprinkled if too dry. In 
the new pile the outside is placed inside and the inside is placed 
outside, so as to give every part of the whole mass an equal chance 
to participate in the fermentation. 

Under average conditions, three weeks and three successive 
turnings are required to complete the chemical and bacterial re- 
actions in the manure and effect its transfomiation into compost 
suitable for the beds. These turnings arc made at intervals of 
about one week, in the manner described for the first turning. 

During these operations the material has undergone a radical 
change, both in texture and in appearance. The characteristic 
odor of manure is now entirely absent, and has given way to a 
rather sweet odor suggestive of the mushroom. The material 
has assumed a uniformly brownish color, velvety to the touch. 
It should be sufficiently moist to retain its shape when squeezed 
in the hand without allowing any liquid to ooze from it. Atten- 
tion is invited to the technical studies on compost and ferments 
in Part 2 of this book. 

The latter does not by any means invalidate the following practice, which 
has commended itself to some very successful growers. The manure is piled 
in very large compost heaps, where it is kept moist and is turned only once or 
twice. It ferments very slowly. Then it is carted into the cave or mushroom 
house, long before it could be considered in proper condition to be spawned. 
The beds (usually flat when this is the procedure) are made immediately. 
These are fairly well moistened and compressed, then left to undergo a general 
fermentation, which may require a month. When the manure shows a ten- 
dency to fall to the temperature of the room it is spawned. Meanwhile, it 
will doubtless be found that a heavy crop of some small species 'of Coprinus will 
have appeared. The presence of this fungus is not injurious, but rather it 
may be taken as an indication that the conditions are favorable. 

drdinarily the manure is obtained as fresh as possible. It should include the 
straw used in bedding the animals, and the quantity of the straw will determine 
to some extent the value of the manure. The straw of cereals is far better than 
that of most of the grasses. The more resistant straws seem greatly to im- 
prove the texture of the compost for mushroom purposes. Commercially it 
is a mistake to attempt to get the manure free from straw. If fresh manure is 
not obtainable, that which has been trampled by the animals is ordinarily 
rich, well preserved, and desirable. It ferments best in large piles, and these 
may be of considerable extent, about 3 or 4 feet deep throughout. If not uni- 
formly moist, the material should be sprinkled. At no time is a very heavy 
watering desirable. In from four days to a week or more the compost should 



PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST 



19 






Si?? 













20 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Some growers, at the last turning, mix about one-fifth of loam 
with the manure. Such addition may have some advantages 
where suitable loam is found in abimdance and where beds are 
made in tiers. It makes it easier to "beat in" a solid layer on the 
springy boards. . 

It is known that many insects and fungal diseases may be in- 
troduced into the mushroom house with the compost by the care- 
less grower. It is advisable to scatter quick-lime over the ground 
where the manure is to be cured. This will dry out the soil and 
destroy eggs, larvae and foreign spores. 

When the compost is ready for the beds it is reduced to nearly 
one-half of its original volume. 

A Simple Method for Beginners — The principles governing 
the composting of the manure ^ though familiar to the experienced 
grower, at first appear complex to the beginner and often dis- 
courage him at the start. For the benefit of amateurs who desire 
immediate results with least amount of trouble, we suggest the 
following method: 

Mix in a barn or shed, where material will not freeze during the 
manipulation, G bushels fresh horse manure (free from long 
straws), with 2 bushels of good garden loam. Manure should 
be fresh, not dried, and loam should be moist. If material is 
fresh, no addition of water is necessary. Leave a few days, 
provided there is no danger of frost, which would freeze the ma- 
terial into cakes. 



be turned, or forked over, and a second turning will be required a week or ten 
days later. Water should be added only when necessary to maintain a moist 
(but not wet) condition. With this amount of moisture, and with the piles 
deep enough to become fairly compact as a result of their own weight, there will 
be little danger of any injurious fermentation. During the normal fermentation 
the temperature may rise higher than 150° F. In from fifteen to twenty- 
one days or more, depending upon the conditions, temperature will begin to 
fall, and the compost may be used in the construction of the beds. When used 
in the beds, it has ordinarily lost all objectionable odor, and the color of the 
straw has changed from yellow to brown. 

It has been the experience of some of the most successful growers that the 
use of shavings for bedding material in the stables does not injure the value of 
the product for mushroom work. The presence of a large amount of sawdust, 
is, however, objectionable so far as the writer's experience goes. Compost 
containing much sawdust is necessarily very "short," and therefore the physi- 
cal condition is not the most favorable for Agaricus campestris. 

In another chapter attention is called to the fact that the value of the manure 
depends to a considerable extent upon the feed given the animals. It would 
not be wise to depend upon that obtained from stables in which hay and 
green foods are used to too great an extent. Moreover, it is not believed that 
compost made from the manure of cattle barns in mushroom growing is as 
desirable as stable manure. 



INSTALLATION OF THE BEDS 21. 

Build a small box or i)arlilion in your collar one yard square, 
twelve inches hi^^h. Brin^' in the material and spread one bushel 
at a time evenly in the box; tamp it fimily with a brick. Then 
l)rin<; in the next bushel, and so on. 

Ascertain the tem]jcrature of the bed at frequent intervals, us- 
ing a mushroom thennometer. When temperature of the bed 
has fallen to 7.")° F., plant the spawn, breaking the brick into <S or 
10 pieces, inserting a piece in the center of each square foot of 
bed, 2 inches below the surface. Cover, and tamp the holes. 
Then cover the bed with about 4 inches of clean straw, and, if 
convenient, with an old piece of carpet. 

After 10 cjr 12 days, remove the straw and spread 1 to 
13^ inches of fresh loam over the bed, tamp gently, and replace 
the straw and cari^et. After about 40 days, mushrooms will 
commence to appear. The straw and carpet are then removed. 
The temperature of the cellar should not rise above 60° nor fall 
below 50° F. 

The quantities above mentioned are based upon one square 
yard, for which one brick of "Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn" 
is reqtiired. For larger beds, increase the quantities ])roportion- 
ately. 

It must not be assumed that this method is given as a peifect 
substitute for the usual and rational operations. It will not give 
maximum results, and is only suggested, not recommended, 
as a first experiment for beginners who have not studied and di- 
gested the ])rinci]:)lcs outlined in this 1iook. 

INSTALLATION OF THE BEDS 

Before the prepared compost is introduced into the mushroom 
house it is essential that the latter be free of noxious germs^ 
insects or larva:. It ]3ays to fumigate and disinfect the house, 
shelves, etc., after each crop, for it is a difficult matter to combat 

In some cities the municipal ordinances require that the manure shall be 
promptly removed from the feeding stables or that it shall be disinfected. 
In the latter case crude carl)oHc acid, or even corrosive sublimate, may be 
used to secure this end. Manure thus disinfected is, of course, undesirable for 
mushroom work. For the same reason the manure of veterinary hospitals is 
of questionable value. 

For the most part manure may be composted in the open air. It may, 
however, be prepared with greater uniformity under cover. During mid- 
summer protection may be desirable on account of drying out, while in the 
winter it is more important in case of excessive cold. If it is necessary to 
compost manure during tlic winter, moreover, the piles should be of consider- 
able depth. 



22 



PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 




INSTALLATION OF THE HHDS 23 



the bacterial and insect enemies of the mushroom without injur- 
ing,' the growing s])awn or the bearing crop. When it is considered 
that the spawn and the nnishrotnn itseU' are of bacterial orij^in, 
and therefore readil>- killed by strong antisejjtics, it will be reali/x'd 
that these remedies must be used before the compost or the si)awn 
are present 




A. FLAT BED IN A BARN 

Two t>-pes of beds are in general use, the flat bed and the ridge 
bed, as shown in the illustrations. Both have their advantages, 
and disadvantages. If the additional item of labor is not too 
great, the ridge bed is probably the best. 

The cone-shaped ridge has a width of IS to 22 inches at the base 
and an equal height. The smaller ridge is used in wann houses 
and the larger in cold houses. The ridge bed is more easily 

INST.\LLATION OF BEDS 

Mushroom beds are of two general types, (1) the flat bed, frequently re- 
ferred to as the Enghsh, and (2) the ridge bed, known as the French tj'pe. 
In making the former the entire floor space may be utilized as a bed, and the 
beds may be arranged in the form of tiers or shelves, as shown in the figure. 
In low cellars or caves, and, indeed, wherever the amount of floor space is 
not the most important cori.sideration, it would be well to avoid the use of 
shelves; but where the amount of floor space is an important factor they may 
be adopted to advantage, although the additional labor involved in the grow- 
ing of a crop under such conditions is an item to be considered. When the 
shelves are used one should be careful to whitewash these after each crop, in 
order to avoid the increased danger from insect depredations. In any case, 
flat beds should be made from eight to ten inches deep. 

Ridge beds enable one to get a somewhat greater surface space in a given 
area, but they are also more expensive, so far as the labor of construction is 



24 



PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 



ventilated ; it allows the carbonic acid gas, which is heavier than 
air, to dpain off from its surface into the walkway, being replaced 
by fresh air containing a normal supply of oxygen. The dimen- 
sions above given should not be materially departed from. 
The ridges should be well packed and carefully combed. A path- 
way of about 15 inches is left between the ridges. 




SHELF BEDS IN CELLAR 



concerned. Nevertheless, under many circumstances they are obviously de- 
sirable. They should be about 2 feet wide at the base, tapering gradually to 
the apex, and not more than about 18 to 20 inches high when compressed and 
cased. The custom is to make two such beds in contact and then to leave a 
walk-way of 8 or 10 inches between the next two, and so on till the space is 
occupied. Next to the walls slanted beds may be prepared. 

In any case, the manure is made up in the form of the bed desired, and should 
be firmed or compressed in order to prevent drying out and burning when the 
second fermentation takes place. At this time the manure should be neither 
wet nor dry, but merely moist. The only practical test of the proper mois- 
ture content of the manure which can be relied upon is when upon compres- 
sion water cannot be readily squeezed out of it. 

The prevalent opinion among amateurs that the bed should always be deep 
enough to maintain considerable heat is believed to be erroneous. Grown 
under more or less uniform conditions, mushrooms seem to require no bottom 
heat, and the bed should fall to the temperature of the room some time after 
spawning. Bottom heat, and hence large beds, are, however, desirable when 
sudden changes of weather would so reduce the temperature of the bed as 
to delay growth. Under similiar conditions, as well as in the dry air, mulch- 
ing may be required. 



INSTALLATION OF THE BEDS 



25 



» «;: 



■Wife'* 












« « . # 



'■;t>V -***»' -''^^\v 

^^^ ' ^t> ^'- «■■ 



• -.««»»^ 



26 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

The flat bed is probably more generally used in the United States 
because it is more easily constructed and involves less labor. 
Flat beds are made about ten inches deep. There is no advantage 
in making them deeper, and the foregoing remarks, about the 
larger ridge bed may well be applied to the deeper flat bed. Mush- 
room beds do not require bottom heat. 

In caves and tunnels, flat beds are ordinarily built on the ground. 
The floor may be of dirt, cement or boards, and should previously 
be disinfected with quick-lime. Provision should also be made 
against seepage. In cellars or mushroom houses, beds are often 
built in tiers ; the same precautions should be taken to insure clean- 
liness. 

To prevent the accumulation of carbonic acid gas on the flat 
beds, they should, if possible, be slightly inclined towards the al- 
leyway in the center, so as to allow this gas to drain off as fast as 
it is exhaled by the mushrooms and be replaced by a new supply 
of oxygen. 

In making the beds, either flat or ridge beds, the compost should 
again be mixed and divided so as to be of unifonn composition. 
It is then well packed and tamped, preparatory to spawning. The 
critical stage of the operations has now arrived. The temperature 
of the beds may rise very materially, and again the rise may be 
insignificant. A reliable thermometer is now an absolute neces- 
sity, as the beds must be constantly watched until spawning. 

SPAWNING 

The best temperature of the beds for spawning has been found 
by repeated experiments to be about 70° F. It is dangerous to 
spawn at a higher temperature, and a proper start may not be 
secured if spawned at a lower temperature. Spawning should 
never be attempted when the temperature of the bed rises, as it 
is likely to rise beyond the danger point and kill the spawn. This 

SPAWNING AND CASING THE BEDS 

From what has been said concerning the temperature requirements it will 
be evident that spawn should not be inserted in the beds until the temperature 
has fallen low enough to insure successful competition on the part of the my- 
celium with other organisms. In many articles on mushroom growing it 
has been suggested that beds may be spawned when the temperature has 
fallen to about 90° F. From e.xperience and observation, the writer can 
only conclude that such a temperature is frequently fatal, and it is believed 
that the temperature of the beds should be permitted to fall to 70° F. be- 
fore being spawned. In fact the most successful results have been obtained at 
temperatures from 65° to 70° F. It was formerly believed that if the 
spawn were inserted at 90° F. this higher temperature incited the rather 



SPAWNING 27 



is the fatal mistake which is often made by beginners who have 
otherwise carefully observed cultural directions and who are at 
a loss to account for their failure. The thermometer in the beds 
should be constantly watched, and as soon as the temperature 
of the beds has dropped to 70° the spawn should be planted 
immediately. If this opportunity is lost.-a poor crop is sure to 
result. This emphasizes the necessity of having the spawn 
on hand before the critical time. It should therefore be ordered 
at the early stages of the operations, so as to make liberal allow- 
ance for delays in transit and for other unforeseen contingencies, 
it is safest to order the sjjawn before the preparation of the com- 
]jost is undertaken. Under i^ropcr conditions of storage, brick 
spawn will keep for sc\'eral months without deteriorating, and it 
can be shii)pcd by freight, in quantities of fifty bricks or over, at 
lower rates. Special emphasis is laid on the foregoing consider- 
ations because there is a tendency on the part of the grower to 
deku' ordering his spawn until he is nearly ready to use it, under 
the mistaken impression that it will be fresher when he receives 
it. The brick of spawn is broken in about eight pieces, which will 
spawn about eight square feet of beds. The practice of sawing 
the spawn is to be discouraged, as it tears and destroys a consider- 
able portion of the mycelium. 

Brick spawn alone is considered in this article, as it is not practi- 
cable for the average mushroom grower to handle or use loose spawn 
on account of its very perishable nature. It has been found advisable 
to dispose the spawn about to be planted on the bed a few days be- 
fore time of spawning has arri\^ed. The natural moisture of the 
bed will thus cause the mycelium of the spawn to gradually swell, 
and thus more readily run in the beds when planted. The spawn 
thus treated could not, however, be dried again for future use 
without material injury. Under no circumstances .should the 
si)awn be dij^j^ed in water before planting; such treatment is al- 
most sure to result in ])emianent injury. This warning would 
seem superfluous to the experienced grower, except for the fact that 
we have actually seen the practice recommended in some publi- 
cations. 



dormant mycelium to rapid and vigorous growth. It is clear, however, that 
the rapid development of the new mycelium from the pieces of spawn brick 
inserted is not so important a factor as suitable conditions for continued 
growth. If the temperature falls rapidly from 90° F. after spawning, 
however, no injury will result. Nevertheless, it is to be considered an un- 
fortunate condition. 



28 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

When the beds are in proper condition, they are spawned by 
inserting a piece of spawn about one inch below the surface. 
The hole is then filled, and tamped so as to insure intimate contact 
between the spawn and the compost. Care should now be taken 
that the beds do not lose any of their moisture. The walls and 
alleyways should be sprinkled to keep the atmosphere moist. 
The direct application of water on the beds at this stage is ex- 
ceedingly dangerous ; it is most likely to cause the delicate fibrous 
mycelium to rot and die. The beds should, however, contain a 
nonnal amount of moisture if the compost, has been properly 
cured. 

The mycelium of the spawn, whose life has been suspended, 
will now soon show signs of activity, and in a few days will radiate 
from the piece of spawn and slowly permeate the compost. Cas- 
ing of the beds should not be undertaken until the growth of the 
spawn has taken a fair start and extends a few inches into the bed. 
About a week after planting a small quantity of material near the 
spawn may be removed in the hand and examined in a strong light. 
If the spawn is running, a grayish fuzz will be observed in the 
material, and, if sufficiently extended, the time for casing has ar- 
lived. This occurs ordinarily from one to two weeks after spawn- 
ing. Casing should not, however, be delayed too long. 

CASING THE BEDS 

Casing consists in applying to the bed a layer of loam from 1 to 
13^ inches deep. It is essential that this loam be free from lig- 
neous or putrefying matter which might introduce into the bed 
injurious molds. The loam should be neither clay nor pure sand. 
Calcareous loam, or calcareous sand mixed with some good loam, 

The bricks of spawn may be broken into from 10 to 12 pieces, from 13-^ 
to 2 inches square. These pieces may be inserted about 1 inch beneath the 
surface of the manure. In flat beds they may be placed from 10 to 12 inches 
apart throughout the bed, and in ridge beds should be inserted on each side 
alternately, one near the top and the next near the bottom. It is well to in- 
sert the pieces vertically, as the mycelium does not then seem so readily to 
suffer damping off. After spawning the beds should again be firmed, and 
they are then ready to be cased or loamed, whenever this process may seem 
most desirable. At the time of spawning the beds should be in the best con- 
dition possible for the growth of the mycelium. Delay in growth at this time 
is one of the surest indications of a light yield. If the bed contains the proper 
amount of moisture, and if the walls and floors of the house or cellar are sprin- 
kled occasionally, so as to maintain a moist condition of the atmosphere, it is 
possible to avoid wholly the use of water upon the beds immediately after 
spawning. In no case should a bed recently spawned be heavily watered. 



CASING THE BEDS 29 



is the best. The loam used for the casinj^ should be fairly moist, 
and that condition should be preserved by keeping the atmosphere 
of the mushroom house saturated with moisture, or by a very 
light spraying on the casing. A casing which is in a muddy con- 
dition, or which is too dry, may be injurious to the growing mush- 
rooms. The casing should not be applied until the spawn has 
been observed to nm, but should not be delayed much thereafter. 
Under nomial conditions this will occur from 1 to 2 weeks after 
spawning; this is under normal conditions. 

When clay loam is a])plied to the beds in a muddy condition, 
it will completely shut off the air from the beds and will at the same 
time to some extent check the escape of the carbon dioxide which 
is continually generated in the interior of the beds. Moreover, 
such a mudd}' surface will later on dry and fonn cracks on the sur- 
face of the beds, thus breaking the mycelial threads, if any, that 
may have reached the surface to fonn small mushrooms, and damp- 
ing off is almost sure to follow. If, before the casing is applied, 
the beds show moldy areas as if a plaster had been sprinkled in 
patches, it is evident that such beds are affected by the plaster 
mold (MoniHa fimicola). Such patches should be sprinkled with 
powdered quick-lime when the surface is wet, or sprinkled with a 
one or two per cent solution of water and lysol if the surface is 
dry. This treatment is recommended when the infection is on 
the surface only where it has been brought from without. If the 
mold is found also in the interior of the bed (the result of poorly- 
composted manure) there is scarcely any remedy for it, and a 
maximum yield cannot be anticipated. 

The surface may be sprinkled, if there is a tendency toward drying out . The 
same test for moisture content as has been outhned previously in these pages 
in the chapter on preparing the manure should be followed. The beds should 
become, gradually, somewhat drier, however, during the growth of the spawn. 

The absolute water content for the bed at the time of spawning should be 
about 40 per cent, although this will vary considerably, according to the con- 
ditions, and especially with relation to the quantity of straw in the manure. 

If the spawn grows rapidly at first and spreads throughout the bed, it will 
not be injured by a slight drying out, or by a temperature even as low as 32° 
F. On the other hand, a continuous high temperature for several days, 
or excessive watering, is sure to result in irreparable injury. In several in- 
stances where the experimental beds of the writer have been made during the 
late autumn and where a vigorous growth of spawn has been secured before 
the advent of the coldest weather, the beds have remained unproductive 
throughout the winter months, or so long as the temperature remained in- 
termittently below 40° or 50° F. With the warmer weather, these beds 
have come into bearing several months later, and where the temperature has 
then remained favorable for some time a good yield has been obtained. In 
this case, moreover, the bed will bear much longer at a temperature of G0° 



30 PRACTICAL* CONSIDERATIONS 

Several theories have been advanced to explain the function of 
the casing in the production of the mushroom. One thing is 
certain: without casing, little or no crop would be obtained. It 
is claimed that following a biological law peculiar to cryptogams, 
when the mycelium meets a changed medium which is no longer 
nutritious for it, it will become at once transformed into cylindrical 
stems and, upon contact with the air, will expand and fonn the 
button which later becomes the mushroom. Under this theory, 
the function of casing would be purely physical and the addition 
of fertilizers to the casing would seem to be superfluous. 

As a matter of fact no absolute time can be laid down, for the 
appearance of the mushrooms is not only dependent upon the 
uniform temperature in the mushroom house, but also upon the 
quality of the compost, the care used in its preparation, the quality 
and condition of the spawn, the degree of moisture of the beds, and 
even the composition of the casing. Beds have been known to lay 
dormant for a number of months, and again have commenced to 
bear within six weeks after spawning. As long as there is spawn 
in the beds which is properly rvinning and is not being re-absorbed, 
a crop may be looked for. If there is much delay in the appearance 
of mushrooms, the cause should be investigated and remedied. 
If the spawn has been killed by a material rise in the temperature 
of the beds after spawning, or by other causes, there is, of 
course, no remedy. 

WATERING 

Mushrooms, like other plants, require water; yet surface water- 
ing on the mushroom beds causes more or less injury. The 
mushroom requires oxygen to live; a sprinkling of water falling 
on a pin head mushroom completely covers it and consequently 

F. or above, than if the temperature has been constantly in the neighborhood 
of 60° F. throughout the growing season of the spawn. As a rule, beds thus 
filled with spawn and then subjected for a time to cold conditions yield at 
the outset much larger mushrooms than beds exposed to a more constant 
temperature, even if this constant temperature may be optimum. 

At any rate, the beds must be "cased" as soon as convenient after the spawn 
is inserted. As a rule, one should wait from one to two weeks in order to be 
sure that the spawn is growing.' Casing consists in applying to the bed a layer 
of loam from 1 to IJ^ inches deep. In France the casing soil consists of cal- 
careous earth, sometimes mixed with loam. Ordinary loam of almost any 
quality will suffice. This should be secured in advance, and it is well to pro- 
tect it from the weather, so that at a convenient time it may be worked over, 
and if necessary screened, in order to free it from large pebbles or trash. When 
the loam is applied, it should, on ridge beds, be carefully firmed. When cased, 
a bed should require watering for the most part merely to maintain a moist 
surface. 



PICKING AND PREPARING FOR MARKET 31 

shuts off the air necessary to its existence. It practically drowns 
the mushroom, so to say. Likemsc, on the beds, a film of water 
will seal them, especially when clay loam is used, and thus prevent 
the escape of the noxious gases generated in the interior of the 
beds as well as by the mushrooms and growing sj^awn. Water 
vapor used in saturating the atmosphere is the best means of 
supplying the needed moisture without causing any injury. The 
walls and alley^vays of the mushroom house can be liberally 
sprinkled, but the sprinkling can should be used on the beds only as 
a last resort. 

PICKING AND PREPARING FOR MARKET 

The experienced mushroom grower can readily ascertain, by 
surface indications, when the mushrooms are about to appear on 
the beds. White, fuzzy patches, more or less regular or cirailar 
in form, may be seen around the places where the spawn has been 
planted. The casing will bulge and crack here and there, showing 
white globules. These growths may appear in the shape of white 
filaments, or may be composed of white vesicles running together. 
These manifestations should not, however, be confused with the 
efflorescent growth known as Monilia fimicola, the common 
"plaster mold," resembling in appearance an accumulation of 
white grantilations suggesting plaster spots. Hence the popular 
name of the disease. 



WATERING 

As previously indicated, the spreading spawn should receive no water, or 
at least as Httle as possible. When, however, the mushrooms begin to appear, 
more water will be required, and a light sprinkling may be given once or twice 
each week, or as often as the conditions demand. Beds which come into bear- 
ing in proper condition should never be drenched. It has been found by ex- 
perience that under the most favorable conditions a bed will require occasional 
sprinkling, since, owing to continual evaporation, there will be a gradual loss 
of water, at least after the mushrooms begin to appear. Sprinkling should 
be made after the mushrooms have been gathered, and the loam disturbed 
by the removal of the mushrooms should always receive a light sprinkling. 

PICKING AND PREPARING FOR MARKET 

When a bed is in full bearing the mushrooms should be gathered at least 
once in two days, and it is well to pick them every day, particularly if the tem- 
perature is up to 60° F. or more. Picking is itself an art, and the intelli- 
gent owner will soon find that the yield of a bed may be greatly lessened by 
lack of judgment in picking. To satisfy the general demands of our markets 
at the present time it is not recommended to take the buttons; yet, if there is 
a fancy trade for these, it should be met. Little or no gain of weight occurs 
in the mushroom, however, after the veil begins to break, so that mushrooms 
should not be left after this time. Flat tops are a third-grade article, but 
these, as well as all defective mushrooms, should be sedulously removed from 
the bed every day. 



32 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

It is often found that some strange fungi appear on the beds in 
advance of the regular crop, the germs of which may have been 
introduced in the mushroom house with the compost. Chief 
among these intruders is the Coprinus, a species of which is here- 
with illustrated. Another species of the same genus is more 
squatty in appeal ance. They are short-lived, and the gills soon 





COPRINUS COMATUS (SHAGGY MANEJ 
Before and after the gills have been dissolved 

dissolve, forming a black, inky liquid; they are sometimes called 
"ink caps." The appearance of these fungi, which are edible, is 
considered by some a rather favorable omen. 

The picking of the mushrooms should not be left to unintelli- 
gent or inexperienced hands. It is an easy matter to lose or waste 
half of the crop through careless picking. In harvesting the crop 
one should not be guided by the size of the mushrooms, but rather 
by their condition and stage of maturity. For example, a mush- 
room with a small cap and a long stem should not be allowed to 

In picking, grasp the mushroom by the cap (a large one by both cap and stem) , 
twisting it to remove it easily from the soil. Where the mushrooms come up 
in large united clusters, it will be best to cut them, in order not to disturb the 
mycehal connections of all. Some good growers practice "cutting" through- 
out, but the stubs must decay and are a source of danger. After all good 
mushrooms from a cluster have been taken, remove any fleshy spawn masses 
adhering and add fresh loam. 



PICKING AND PREPARING FOR MARKET 33 

remain until the following day, for it will not <j;ain in wx'ij^ht by 
reniainin}^\ but will have its cap entirely oi)en the next day, becom- 
ing; a third-grade article. On the othcT hand, a mushroom with 
a large deep cap and a short stout stem ma\- remain a day or two 
longer without breaking its veil, and double or treble its weight 
in that short period. The best tune to ])ick the mushroom is 




A CLUSTER OF FIFTY MUSHROOMS ON ONE ROOT 

Grown by Miller & Rogers from Lambert's P. C. Spawn 
Note — This illustration is being copied and used by some persons without authority, in 
connection with other grades of spawn. 



As they are picked, the mushrooms are put into shallow baskets and taken 
to a sorting and packing table. The stems are cut off and any adhering loam 
is brushed from the cap. It is true that mushrooms keep somewhat better if 
the stub is left attached and the loam removed by rubbing, but except in spe- 
cial cases this procedure is not to be recommended. It is not necessary to cut 
the stem off short, but the market demands that there shall be few long shanks. 

For the best trade it is desirable to "sort" the mushrooms, placing only those 
of nearly the same size in the same packages. It is certainly not well to pack 
together "broilers" and buttons, if this can be avoided. Defective mushrooms 
should invariably be thrown out. Mushrooms should be treated as a first- 
grade product in everj^ way, and therefore the package must be attractive. 
If the time involved in shipment is not to be very long, they may be put into 
5-pound splintwood baskets, or they may be packed in 2-pound boxes arranged 
in crates, as prepared for fruit. Shipment may also be made in boxes of sizes 
demanded by the general or private trade. Baskets afford excellent ventila- 
tion, yet boxes are often to be preferred. If the latter are lined with a blue 
paraffin or oiled paper, a good color contrast will result and the package will 
be made much more attractive. 



34 



practicaI considerations 



when the veil is about to separate from the stem; it has then ac- 
quired its maximum weight and will be graded as number one on 
the market. 




FOUR POUNDS OF MUSHROOMS IN EACH BASKET 
Grown by Mr. Swayne, from Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn 

In picking, a gentle oscillation and twist is imparted to the mush- 
room. The cavity left in the surface of the bed should invariably 
be filled with fresh loam. Mushrooms should be handled care- 
fully; they should not be thrown or dropped in the baskets. It 
must be remembered that every point of contact will show a dark 
spot in a few hoiirs and mar their appearance for the market. 
Mushrooms deteriorate materially by frequent or careless handling. 

In preparing the mushrooms for market, legitimate require- 
ments, and even the caprices of the buyer, must be taken into con- 



Under favorable circumstances, a bed may come into bearing within six 
weeks. It usually requires, however, a longer period, and eight weeks may 
more nearly represent the average conditions. If the conditions have been 
variable, and especially if at times a very low temperature has prevailed, 
bearing may be still further delayed. Again, the period of production or the 
profitable "life" of a successful bed may vary greatly, ranging from five weeks 
to as many months. As a rule, a bed which produces fine, heavy mushrooms 
will bear longer than one which yields plants of lighter weight. Many growers 
think that there is profit in a bed which yields one-half pound per square foot 
of surface area. One should not be satisfied with less than this, and if the 
best conditions prevail this yield Is far below what should be obtained. Two 
pounds per square foot is an excellent yield and some of our growers report this 
amount. 



PICKING AND PREPARING FOR MARKET 



35 



sideration. The best market demands an attractive package 
containing from one to three pounds of clean, fresh mushrooms 
of unifonn size and color, at the proper stage of maturity. Flat 
tops, unattractive packages, mixed sizes or colors will bring from 




OVER TWO POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT 
Grown by Mr. Collins, from Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn 

1 to 20 cents per pound less than the higher grade. Some markets 
are partial to large mushrooms, others to small or medium sizes, 
while still others have a preference for the pure white or the brown 
mushroom. These are matters of individual taste which the mush- 
room grower must study and cater to if maximum results are to 
be obtained. It is therefore advisable to sort the mushrooms be- 
fore packing, so that uniformity may be secirred in each package. 
For shipping purposes, mushrooms are packed in baskets or 
in cartons or boxes, and crated. Grape or fruit baskets are used 
where they can be procured cheaply. The tendency is now to 
use special cartons, or paraffined boxes, of uniform size, which are 
attractive and inexpensive, and are easily crated. Second- 
hand fruit crates, lemon or orange crates may sometimes be ob- 
tained from grocers or fruit dealers at a trifling cost. Crates 
should be marked "Handle with care, this side up." Rough hand- 
ling by carriers has resulted in bruised mushrooms and consequent 
loss in grade. Of course, mushrooms are never shipped by freight. 



36 



PRACTICAi CONSIDERATIONS 



The total yield of a mushroom bed at one planting is dependent 
upon the careful observance of all cultural requisites. One pound 
to the square foot is a good average yield; two pounds are often ob- 
tained, and in many cases considerably more. The bearing per" 




TEN-POUND SHIPPING CRATE 



iod is from six weeks to three months, and its duration is largely 
influenced by the temperature and moisture content of the mush- 
room house. In colder beds the mushrooms grow slowly, are of 
better quality and are less subject to the attacks of their enemies, 
which are then more or less dormant. Some growers will prepare, 
spawn and case their beds in the usual way, and then allow them 
to cool off below the growing temperature, thus remaining dormant. 
At the proper time, they will restore the heat and moisture, and 
gather a vigorous crop in the early spring or at such other period 
when market prices are highest. The spawn must, however, 
have a few weeks' start before this treatment is applied. 

The importance of securing maximum results cannot be over- 
estimated. The cost of production is the same for a given area 
of beds, whether a good or a poor crop be harvested. While the 
raising of mushrooms paj^s the grower well with a fair crop, very 
large and quick profits af& made in the big yields. 



MARKET CONDITIONS 37 



MARKET CONDITIONS 

The best markets for the sale of fresh mxishrooms ate the local 
markets, and those markets in larger cities which can be reached 
within a day's ride by express for morning delivery. Fresh 
nmshrooms are bought pnnci])ally by hotels, cafes, restaurants 
and private consumers. They are also extensively handled by 
l^roducc merchants and grocery stores. Direct sales to the con- 
sumer would seem to bring the best prices, but hotels, cafes and 
restaurants as well as grocery stores, desire to be assured of a steady 
supply. To produce merchants, mushrooms are generally con- 
signed to be sold on a commission basis, usually ten per cent. 
The prices vary according to locality and the season of the year. 
There is always a strong demand for the No. 1 grade described in 
the preceding chapter; and the price for this grade seldom falls 

MARKET CONDITIONS 

The successful cultivation of mushrooms in America has not been so general 
as in most of the European countries. It is in France and England that the 
mushroom industry has been best developed. France is, properly speaking, 
the home of the present mushroom industry. Unusual interest has been shown 
in the United States in the growth of mushrooms within the past few years 
and it is to be hoped and expected that within the next ten years the industry 
will develop to the fullest limit of the market demands. The latter will, of 
course, be stimulated and developed by the increasing popular appreciation 
of this product. In some cities and towns there is already a good market de- 
mand for mushrooms, while in others they may be sold only directly to special 
customers. This should be borne in mind by prospective growers. 

In the vicinity of Paris the mushroom industry has been remarkably de- 
veloped during the past eight or ten years. The total product sold through 
the central market of Paris in 1898 was nearly 4,000,000 pounds; the quantity 
for .1900 is given approximately as 8,500,000 pounds, and for 1901 nearly 
10,000,000 pounds. 

These figures show most' convincingly the present status of the mushroom 
industry in France. It may be safely assumed that more than one-third of 
this quantity is consumed in a fresh state in and about the city. The growth 
of the canning industry during this period has also been remarkable. In 1898 
about 1,800,000 pounds were preserved, while in 1901 the canned product 
amounted to nearly 6,200,000 pounds. During 1901 the approximate 
monthly production of mushrooms ranged from 651,000 pounds to 985,000 
pounds, from which it is evident that these caves yield heavily throughout the 
year. In some instances growers are able to get a crop every four or five 
months. 

It is extremely difficult to estimate the quantity of mushrooms grown in 
the United States. It is certain, however, that the production has increased 
very greatly, and particularly within the last four or five years. In the vicin- 
ity of several of our larger cities there are today individual growers who pro- 
duce more than the total commercial output in the neighborhood of those 
cities ten years ago. 

There is now a very good open market for fresh mushrooms in a few of the 
larger cities, although many large growers continue to sell entirely by contract 
or by special orders to hotels and restaurants. With such an enormous 
comparative consumption of the canned product, there is every reason to 
believe that fresh mushrooms can be sold in much greater quantity as soon as 
this product becomes a certain factor in the market. 



38 PRACTICAIf CONSIDERATIONS 

below 50 cents per pound, going as high as $1 and $1.50 per pound 
in certain locaHties. A drop in the market quotations will, as a 
rule, affect the lower grades only. Since the grades are in a large 
measure based upon the time and manner of picking and the care 
in packing, it is obvious that the grower, by his own care or neg- 
lect, can materially influence the market price of his crop as well 
as his margin of profit. In France and in England, the market 
for mushrooms is well developed and regulated. In the United 
States and Canada, the indust/y is still young and there is not 
much co-operation between glowers in marketing their product. 
The demand for fresh mushrooms has been so strong that practi- 
cally no effort hap been made at canning any portion of the supply. 

Since the fresh mushroom is a perishable article, and for that 
reason cannot be shipped to a very great distance, different sec- 
tions of the countr}^ have their own market conditions. For in- 
stance, the growers on the Pacific coast have no competition to 
fear from the growers on the Atlantic coast, and vice versa. It 
must be admitted that the shipping methods of a large number of 
growers are still crude, their packages are unattractive and they 
fail to get the best price of the market. 

It is comparatively easy to develop a local market for mushrooms 
in fairly populous and progressive cities. The proprietors of cafes 
and restaurants have frequent calls for fresh mushrooms. In the 
estimation of many patrons the place does nor rise to the rank of a 
first-class house until fresh mushrooms are found on the bill of 
fare. However, the hotel or cafe must be assured of a steady sup- 
ply ; and therein lies to some extent the secret of success and good 
prices in the local market. The grower who is in a position to 
supply mushrooms the year around has therefore the choice of cus- 
tomers in all markets and receives the best prices. 

OLD BEDS. 

The necessit}^ of removing every vestige of theold beds from 
the muvshroom house cannot be too strongly emphasized. To ne- 
glect or carelessness in this respect can be traced some of the 
diseases and insect pests which affect the mushroom crop. It will 
be remembered that one of the objects of raising mushrooms at 
a temperature below 60° F., is to mature and gather the crop before 
the mushroom enemies, which are rather sluggish at low tempera- 
tures have so far developed as to cause any damage. Should any 
part of these beds be left in the mushroom house after a crop, the 



OPEN-AIR CULTURE 31) 



insect larvae and molds which have been partly develo])ed would 
soon mature and spread to the new beds, attackint^ the j^'rowin^ 
spawn as well as the malurin^^ cro]). 

The s])eeial elements of nutrition in the comjjost which are neces- 
sary for the j^rowth of the mushroom, have ]Jraeticall\' been ex- 
hausted in the old beds. We have alread}^ seen that the mush- 
room is of bacterial origin and requires a favorable mediuni for 
its develo]iment. It may l)e com])arcd in some res])ccts to bacterial 
i^n-owths in the human ])ody wliich, after nmnin^ their course, leave 
the subject ])ractically immune from the same diseases for want of 
proper food for the fvulher de\'cloi)ment of the bacteria. Similarly 
when the mycelial growth of the mushroom has exhausted in the 
beds the special food required for its development, it has ijractically 
nm its couise and the bed has become, so to say, immune. How- 
ever, a subject who has been iminunized against one species of 
bacterial disease is not necessarily immune against another. 
Therefore the expended mushroom beds have lost none of their 
value for other pvirposes and make an excellent lawn dressing and 
fertilizer for flowers and garden prodvicts. In fact, this material 
is much in demand in large cities by florists and owners of gardens, 
who know its value, and is sold at prices averaging about $3 per 
load. This feature makes the growing of mushrooms especially 
attractive to market gardeners and florists, to whom the expended 
beds are exceedingly valuable ; in fact the compost is preferable to 
fresh manure for their purposes. Florists utilize the waste s])ace 
under the benches for the growing of mushrooms. 

OPEN-AIR CULTURE 

It is sometimes assumed by some people that because mushrooms, 
including the Agaricus campcstris, are found outdoors, they can 
be grown in the open air under the same conditions. That is only 
partly true. There are seasons of the year in many climates 
where conditions happen to be favorable to the development of 



OLD BEDS 

When a bed has ceased to bear, or is no longer profitable commercially, it 
should be taken down and every particle of the bedding and casing materials 
removed from the cave, cellar or house. The manure is still valuable for field 
and garden purposes, but is wliolly useless and even dangerous for mushrooms, 
because it is not only exhausted with reference to mushroom growing but may 
also harbor the diseases or enemies of the mushroom. When the bed is removed 
the house should be thoroughly cleaned, and, if possible, sprayed or fumigated. 
If conditions remain constant, there is then no reason why another crop should 
not follow immediately. 



40 practicj^ considerations 

mushrooms, and where these conditions temporarily exist mush- 
rooms are found outdoors, sometimes in abtnidance. As soon, 
however, as these favorable conditions cease, the mushrooms dis- 
appear. If it were known how many million spores and how much 
spawn nature wastes under unfavorable conditions, in order to 
produce a limited number of mushrooms when favorable con- 
ditions occur, it soon would be found that the mushroom grower 
cannot do business on the same basis. He must be reasonably sure 
of a crop regardless of weather conditions and cannot afford to 
waste his labor and his material where the prospects are uncer- 
tain. It follows that open-air culture is restricted to those climates 
where weather conditions fairly correspond with the requirements 
of mushroom culture, that is a uniform temperature ranging be- 
tween 52° and 60° F., a moist atmospheie and a reasonable pro- 
tection from drenching rains. 

However lawns and pastures have been successfully inoculated 
in various sections of the country, and it is surprising that park 
commissions do not more generally take advantage of the facili- 



OPEN-AIR CULTURE 

In some sections of England and France open-air culture of mushrooms in 
beds is practicable during the late autumn and winter months, in which case 
the productive period may extend into the spring. ' The difficulties, in the way 
of open-air culture are not merely those of maintaining a more or less uniform 
temperature, but also of maintaining practically constant conditions of moisture. 
For these reasons it is necessary to mulch the beds heavily with clean straw. 
In some instances a light mulch of straw is permitted to remain even during the 
period of production, for a rapid drying out of the surface would be hazardous 
or fatal. It is better, perhaps, to put the beds under some form of protection, 
such as an improvised cold frame. 

In regions where the climatic changes are marked, open-air culture is prob- 
ably not to be recommended during any season for commercial purpose. It 
is probable that there are some areas in the United States in which open-air 
culture might be practised with profit. It has seemed that certain s?ctions 
of California might be favorable for this phase of the work. In the interest 
of experiments along this line the writer has made a special attempt to acquaint 
himself with the conditions in that section of the country. This has seemed 
particularly desirable, inasmuch as fresh mushrooms could not be shipped to 
the far West from sections in which they are at present grown in quantity. 
From the information obtained it is thought that successful open-air mushroom 
growing might be anticipated in those sections where the average temperature 
is between 48° and 55° F., provided there are relatively few days when 
the temperature falls as low as 32° F. At the same time, open-air culture 
cannot be recommended for those sections in which dry winds aie prevalent. 
As a rvile, during the wet or winter seasons the rainfall is so light that heavy 
mulching would probably suffice to prevent injurj' from excessive wetting. 
Nevertheless, it seems apparent that even in regions most favorable for open- 
air culture some inexpensive partial protection against the changes of tem- 
perature, due to direct sunlight, or against heavy rainfall, would be desirable. 



MUSHROOM SPAWN 41 



ties at their disposal and inoculate with spawn certain portions 
of the public parks which happen to be well drained and shaded. 
La\^^ls and pastures may be inoculated by breaking a brick of 
spawn in four pieces and inserting the same under the sod about 
two feet ajjart. Plant in the summer, and if the season is not wet 
mushrooms will appear in the fall. Avoid depressions where water 
would remain stagnant, as an excess of moisture destroys the spawn. 
Since weather conditions render open-air culture rather tm certain, 
the use of fresh high-grade spawn might be considered expensive. 
It is often possible, in such case, to obtain from dealers, at a much 
reduced ])ricc, spawn which has been kejit in stock for some time 
and cannot therefore be sold as strictly fresh. The grower, thus 
incurring no expense in the preparation of beds, runs no chance be- 
yond the sniall outlay for the spawn. 

MUSHROOM SPAWN 

The spawn proper, or "mycelium," is a delicate felt or thread- 
like growth of a greyish-white color which has been devclo])c(l in 
a suitable medium from a spore or pure culture. 

The advent of pure culture (or tissue and spore culture) spawn 
marks an epoch in the history of mushroom culture. The im- 
])ortance of its discovery was immediately realized by the De- 
partment of Agriculture, who in turn brought it to the attention 
of the American growers. Selection and improvement in the vari- 
eties of the cultivated mushroom arc now possible. Where for- 



MUSHROOM SPAWN 

The mycelium ot the cultivated mushroom has long been known commercial- 
ly as "spawn." From early times it has been recognized that mushrooms may 
be grown from spawn, and it is quite certain that in all attempts to propagate 
mushrooms spawn has been used for the purpose. 

A "Chance" Method— For practical purposes it is necessary to renew 
the spawn and to secure, if possible, spawn which has not previously weakened 
itself V)y the production of mushrooms-^known as virgin spawn. Natural 
virgin .spawn may be found wherever "in nature" it has been possible for the 
spores to germinate and to produce a mycelium. 

Many attempts have been made by practical growers to develop spawn from 
spores, sowing the gill portions of mature mushrooms in specially constructed 
beds; but the results, so far as the writer is aware, have not been satisfactory. 
As a rule, therefore, growers have been compelled to rely wholly upon a virgin 
spawn which has been obtained by chance. It is said that in the vicinity of 
Paris some persons make a business of searching for this virgin spawn, which 
they sell to the growers at a high figure. 

However adept persons may become in the identification of various varieties 
of spawn by odor, etc., this must be considered essentially a chance method. 

A "Selective" Method — From what has been said it will be perceived that 
very little advancement could be made in the selection of desirable varieties of 
mushrooms, in varietal improvement and the like, so long as the chance method 
of securing spawn should prevail. 



42 PRACTICAll CONSIDERATIONS 

merly the grower was compelled to buy wild seed (English or French 
spawn), manufactured by the "chance" method, he is now in a 
position to buy pure culture spawn of the variety most suited to 
his markets and to the special conditions surrounding him. 

Pure culture spawn bears to English and other wild spawn the 
relation that grafted or budded trees bear to fruit seed. The pres- 
ent method of manufacturing English and other wild spawn con- 
sists in gathering the mycelium wherever nature happens to have 
deposited it in its wild state, and "running" the same into bricks. 
No one, not even the manufacturer of this spawn, is able to tell 
what variety or varieties of mushrooms it will grow; in fact wild 
spawn contains a miscellaneous lot of varieties. Since a compara- 
tively small number of those are susceptible of cultivation at all, 
it is not at all surprising that so many experienced growers using 
foreign spawn are continuously meeting with total or partial failiu-es 
in spite of their most intelhgent efforts. 

Proceeding by selection and elimination, the pure culture method 
of manufacturing spawn admits of :3teady improvement in the 
varieties. Cultures are taken from choice specimens of desirable 
varieties known to be thoroughly acclimatized and selected with 
special reference to their hardiness, size, flavor, appearance, and 
prolificness. 

vSpawn, as the term is used commercially, includes the mycelium 
and its carrying medium, the brick. Since the mycelium is of a very 
delicate texture it must, for the purpose of transportation and stor- 
age, be protected from injury and deterioration. Several attempts 
have been made to raise the mycelium and ship it in loose ma- 
terial, but in most instances these experiments have resulted in 
failure. In such.a meditun the improtected mycelium deteriorates 
and loses its vitality so rapidly that it will not stand transportation 
or storage. A fairly compact brick of close texture has given the 
most uniform and satisfactory results. These bricks when made and 



The successful germination studies with chemical stimulation mentioned in 
this paper were soon overshadowed by the discovery of the method of making 
tissue ctiltures. The use of the latter method has been the means of a sudden 
advancement in spawn-making in this country during the past few years, 
for many practical men have been quick to see the advantages which it offers. 

The pure culture method of making virgin spawn is not one which will 
prove successful in the hands of wholly inexperienced persons, or of those who 
are unwilling to spend time and use the utmost care in the manipulation of 
the cultures and the culture material. The use of pure culture methods ne- 
cessitates, to a considerable extent, a knowledge of the bacteria and molds which 
are everywhere present in the air and which are especially abundant wherever 
there are dusty or damp, moldy conditions. 



MUSHROOM SPAWN 



v, 



partly dried arc inoculated with the laire culture which soon ])er- 
nieates them thorouj^hly. This ])roccss is really a remarkable 




PURE CULTURl': HRUK SI'AWX 



demonstration of the dynamic force of throwing organisms which, 
though apparently weak and delicate, will penetrate a com- 
paratively hard and close-grained material. The m^xclium in 
the brick spawn is not first grown in loose material and subse- 
quently dried and prcss(xl into bricks, as has been erroneously 
stated by some writers. 

Thus protected, mushroom spawn (in brick fonn) will retain its 
vitality and remain unimpaired for several months or even over 
a year, if properly stored. The conditions of storage are similar 
to those required for seeds, bulbs, etc., they must be unfavorable 



THE VITALITY OF MUSHROOM SPAWN 

Many of the early experiments in mushroom growing undertaken by the 
writer were made in the hope of being able to ascertain the more frequent 
causes of faihire and some of the chief difiicuUies encountered by American 
mushroom growers. The ordinary commercial (English) spawn used by am- 
ateurs, that is, such as is obtainable upon the market during the winter months, 
was purchased wlicnever possible. Samples of this spawn were placed under 
conditions which were supposed to be most favorable for growth. Neverthe- 
less, in the majority of cases there was no indication of the development of 
a new mycelium from the bricks of spawn thus obtained. 

Special importations of some of the commercial English and French spawns 
were made, and this was packed, shipped, and stored under conditions as 
favorable as may ordinarily obtain. This spawn was imported during the 
midwinter and stored until March or early April, when it was used in spawn- 
ing some experimental beds. The conditions of the experiments were practi- 
cally the same throughout, yet in not more than half the beds was there a 
favorable development of mushroom spawn. 



44 



PRACTICAlf- CONSIDERATIONS 



to germination; in other words, a cool and dry place is required. 
When the bricks are well dried, frost will not injure them to any 
extent. But in a warm and damp atmosphere favorable for ger- 
mination, spawn will get a start and will soon become unf^t for 
planting. 




.■.•-, -.atfS-*"* 



trlJ***- 



n«!B^.«r^:. 












A BED OF MUSHROOMS 

Grown by Mr. Mathews, from "Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn" which had been stored by 

him for over a year 



It is of great importance to the mushroom grower that his spawn 
be on hand when the time for planting has arrived. For, when the 
beds have reached the proper condition to be spawned, a delay 
of a few days is sure to be injurious, if not disastrous to the crop. 
The loss of temperature, and moisture, incident to this delay, can- 
not be retrieved, and a measly crop or perhaps a failure is the in- 
evitable result. It is a mistake to suppose that the dealer is al- 
ways prepared to fill a rush order for spawn, and especially pure 



THE STORAGE OF SPAWN 

It is possible to ruin good spawn by improper storage, even in a relatively 
short period of time. Spawn should be kept in a place that will be both cool 
and dry, but never hot and dry. This should be remembered by both seeds- 
men and growers, for many failures may, undoubte'dly, be attributed to the 
improper storage to which the material has been subjected. 



MUSHROOM ENEMIES 45 



culture spawn. Tlu- ik-mand for pure culture spawn, at i)rescnt 
and for some time to conic, will exceed the sup]jly, and dealers 
can only obtain it from the manufacturers in limited quantities 
by placing their orders in advance and in excess of their needs. 
A careful grower will i)lace his order with his dealer at least sixty 
days before his beds are expected to be ready for the spawn. If, 
as is often the case, the dealer has not in stock the kind of spawn 
or variety desired, he should be given time to order a fresh supi)l\'. 
Rush orders are filled with any stock on hand. 

MUSHROOM ENEMIES 

The principal enemies of the mushroom may be divided into two 
classes, insects and bacterial molds. They are treated in detail 
in the notes and in Part 2 (Technical Stl'dies); we will therefore 
refer to thein gcneralh'. 

The insects causing injury to the mushroom cro]) are usually 
carried in the mushroom house in the fomi of larva\ with the 
compost. This is corroborated by the fact that mushroom beds 
made from manure hauled and prepared in the winter months are 
remarkably free from insects. Recent discoveries tend to show that 
the insects are active agents in the spreading of parasitic diseases 
among mushrooms. Fumigations intended to destroy insects in 
houses containing beds in bearing are not very successful. In order 
to kill the insects the dose must be so strong that serious injury'- to 
the bearing beds results. The winged insects can be blown out 
of the mushroom house by occasionally causing a strong current 
of air to be blown through the house. We have seen this most 
successfully performed by means of a blower operated by a gaso- 
line engine. An ingenious grower used a light in the evening with 



MUSHROOM ENEMIES 

Under suitable conditions and with the exercise of constant vigilance as 
to general cleanliness the mushroom bed will seldom fail as a result of diseases 
or insect depredations. Nevertheless, every precaution should be taken to 
avoid these difficulties. Some of the most common troubles reported in this 
country are as follows: 

Fogging Off — During the pin head or button stage, and sometimes even 
later, the mushrooms which may be appearing in quantity, turn brown, 
cease to grow, and soon decay. This is supposed to be a physiological trouble; 
that is, one caused by a lack of essential conditions. Molds and bacteria may 
play a secondary- part at least in producing this disease. It is most frequent 
in warm weather. 

Black Spot — This disease manifests itself by the appearance of small dis- 
colored areas on the surface of the cap. It is said to be due to improper 
watering and to lack of proper ventilation. 

Fungous Diseases — There are several fungous diseases of the mushroom, 
none of which, however, has been of serious importance in this country, and 
reference to them may, therefore, be omitted in this place. 



40 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

fly paper tacked on the wall back of it. The winged insects would 
soon find the light and the paper and destroy themselves. It 
has not yet been proven that the sowbug or the centipede does 
any damage, and it has been observed that the latter destroys 
other vermin. 

Foreign or parasitic molds or fungi, such as the Pleurotus and 
Clitocybe, are often introduced in the mushroom house with the 
casing, Others, such as the "plaster mold" may be brought in with 
the compost. In all cases preventive measures and strict cleanli- 
ness are the best remedies. 

Remedies: The principal remedies and disinfectants used by 
mushroom growers are sulphate of copper, lime' and sulphur. 

Sulphate of Copper in solution, one ounce or less to a gallon of 
water, may be used to advantage in spraying the manure at the 
last ttiming, or the beds before casing, so as to prevent the develop- 
ment of molds, insect larvae, etc. In the proportion of one ounce 
to a quart of water it is used as a disinfectant in spraying the 
mushroom house before the beds are made up. Quick-Lime is 
used, when pulverized, to sprinkle the ground where the manure is 
to be cured. It is also used in the alleyways between the beds to 
destroy larvas and spores of foreign molds, and even on the beds 



Mites — There are one or two species of mites constantly to be found in 
compost heaps, which may be injurious in the mushroom bed. They are sel- 
dom troublesome at a temperature of less than 50° F., as they are then 
more or less sluggish; and, although they may be found upon the mushroom, 
they do little or no harm. At a higher temperature they are supposed to 
destroy the spawn to a certain extent and owing to their great numbers, they 
are at least objectionable upon the mushrooms. 

Wood Lice, or "Sowbugs." — These crustaceans, like the mites, are not 
of great importance where the conditions of temperature are favorable. The 
best methods of extermination are by trapping and poisoning them. This 
may be done by putting pieces of potato smeared with arsenic or Paris green, 
together with some dry rubbish, into tin cans or boxes placed on the side. 
Most of the sowbugs that enter these receptacles will be killed by eating the 
poison. 

Snails — Snails and slugs are frequently pests in mushroom growing, but 
they may be readily trapped by the use of lettuce or cabbage leaves. 

Springtails — Springtails may become a source of great annoyance when 
mushrooms are grown in damp caves. As a mle, they can only establish 
themselves when carelessness has been shown in cleaning out old bedding ma- 
terial. When once established they multiply very rapidly, and the mushrooms 
are attacked by them in such numbers that within a day or two every appear- 
ance of fogging off is made manifest. These insects may be readily de- 
stroyed by fumigation with carbon bisulphide, but prevention is the wiser 
course. 

Larvae of Flies — With good manure and under suitable conditions larvas 
of mushroom flies are not usually injurious. Nevertheless, the larvas of the 
little fly, Phora minuta, may be troublesome in warm weather. Fumigation, 
as previously suggested, may be of service in order that the life of a bed may 
be extended somewhat later into the warm season. 



CONSTRUCTION OF MUSHROOM HOUSES 



47 



before casing, when the}' arc found to contain an excess of mois- 
ture. Freshly slacked and mixed in water it is used extensively to 
whitewash and disinfect the mushroom house, shelves, etc. 
Sulphur is probably the most effective fumigant used in the mush- 
room house. It is burned at the rate of 2 pounds per thousand 
cubic feet of space in a moist or steamed atmosphere. In a dry 
atmosphere the fumigant is not nearly so effective. The sulphur- 
ous gases penetrate all cracks and corners and destroy the spores, 
bacteria, and larvas of parasites. It should be applied when the 
mushroom house is empty of beds and has been cleaned and swept 
out. It should never be used where beds are in bearing. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MUSHROOM HOUSES 

In a general wa}' it may be stated that the mushroom house 
should be so constructed or equipped that a unifonn temperatiu"e 
may be maintained therein and a gradual renewal of the air in- 
sured. The i^roblcms involved are, therefore, temperature and 
ventilation, and the method of their solution in the construction 
of the mushroom house will varv according to climate. 










MUSHROOM HOUSE, PARTLY. UNDERGROUND 



The walls of the mushroom house, like the walls of the ice house, 
should be built of a material which is a poor conductor of heat, 
or should be so designed that the changes in the outside temper- 
ature will least affect the inside temperature. Double or hollow 
walls are preferable, as they are not so easily penetrated by heat 
or cold. The space between the inner and outer wall may be filled 



48 



PRACTIC AL» CONSIDERATIONS 



with sawdust or other insulating material. The roof demands 
special attention, since it is most directly exposed to weather ex- 
tremes and will materially affect the temperature of the house. 
The illustrations show an inexpensive treatment of the roof. A 
ceiling is advisable; it will form a closed air space between the 
roof and the beds. 

A LARGE MUSHROOM PLANT 




P^Fi5PtCTH/e 0/= HtATINq P/P^5. 



Where the mushroom house is built ]3artly or wholly underground 
an even temperature can more easily be maintained; but in all 
underground installations special provision must be made for dis- 
posing of the carbonic acid gas, as has been pointed out under the 
subject of Ventilation. 



CAVES, CELLARS AND HOUSES 

Cellars, caves, and abandoned mines, or specially constructed houses are 
used for growing mushrooms, because in such places only can the conditions 
of temperature and moisture be best regulated. Cold is less injurious to mush- 
room beds than heat. The former renders the bed for a time unproductive, 
but the latter stimulates the spawn to too rapid growth, which is usually 
followed by the production of unsalable mushrooms, or by the eventual 
death of the spawn, supposedly by damping off. 

Mushrooms may often be grown in a very simply constructed shed or un- 
used barn which will provide against any sudden changes of the temperature, 
and when it is possible to employ artificial heat the season for mushroom pro- 
duction in such structures may be greatly extended. Cellars are very common- 
ly used in producing mushrooms for family use. Natural or artificial caves 
are of the first importance, however, for commercial work, since the situation 
of these below the surface will best insure a temperature throughout almost the 
entire year more or less close to that which is desired. In selecting caves or 
cellars, one should guard against the possibility of flooding or of too much 
seepage water during a rainy season. Perhaps the least satisfactory situation 
among those mentioned is the greenhouse. Under ordinary circumstances it 
heats up too readily during the days of warm sunshine and. unless special pre- 
cautions are taken, it is not to be generally recommended for amateurs. 



CONSTRUCTION OF MUSHROOM HOUSES 49 



Old sheds and bams are often utilized for growing mushrooms. 
In climates where the weather extremes take a wide ranj^e, it is 
advisable to insulate the walls and roof as ex])lained. 

Cellars, and especially the deep cellar, vegetable cellar or old 
cistern, make ideal j^laces for raising mushrooms on a small scale. 
They can be used in the sinnmer, where the tem])erature can be 
kept down below (50° F. In a warm spell, a chunk of ice left near 
the beds will often be sufficient to prevent an excessive rise in the 
temperature of the cellar. The amateur's first bed should ])refer- 
abh' be made in the cellar where favorable conditions are more 
nearh' realized than in any other building not specially constructed 
for that purpose. The experience thus acquired will be most 
valuable to him in future operations. Many city residences and 
suburban homes are now provided with a special comer in the' 
basement for the mushroom bed from which the family table is 
regularly su])plied. 

Greenhouses can best be utilized in the winter. The waste 
space under the benches is well adapted for the cultivation of 
mushrooms. In the .summer, however, the excessive heat in the 
greenhouse will not permit its use for that purpose. 

Natural caves, abandoned mines and tunnels are admirabh' 
suited to the culti\^ation of the mushroom at all seasons, and are 
therefore of great commercial value. The temperature in these 
caves is fairly imifonn and api:)roximatcs the optimum. Provision 
must be made, however, for ventilation. The necessity of ample 
ventilation is not always suthciently appreciated by growers and 
poor results due to this defect are often attributed to other causes. 

Where the ventilating system of the mushroom house is ample 
and under easy control, it may often be used to regulate the tem- 
]jerature. For instance., should the temperature of the house ex- 
ceed the optimum, advantage can be taken of cool nights to reduce 



Nevertheless, during the fall and winter it is possible to grow mushrooms un- 
der the benches or in any other unused space with but very little outlay of 
money or labor. Cold frames may also be used to good advantage during 
the autumn or spring. The natural caves of this country and abandoned coal 
mines in some sections should be farther investigated with relation to their 
adaptability for the commercial production of mushrooms. A thorough study 
should also be made of open-air conditions. 

In the construction of special mushroom houses any one of a variety of plans 
may be followed, and the selection of the style will depend, of course, upon 
its cheapness and efficiency in the particular locality. 

From the reports of Dr. B. M. Duggar, Professor of Botany at the University of Columbia, 
and Collaborator of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



50 PR ACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

it by opening the ventilators and then closing them as soon as the 
outside temperature again rises. 

In the northern climates, and especially in houses built above the 
ground, it is generally necessary to provide some artificial means of 
raising the tempera tiu-e in the winter months. Heat is supplied 
by several methods. In a large installation, steam or hot water 
pipes are to be preferred. When coal or oil stoves are used, 
provision must be made for the escape of the gases which are high- 
ly injurious to the growing spawn and mushrooms. A draught 
created for that purpose will incidentally ventilate the house. 



HOW TO COOK MUSHROOMS 

To the true epicure there are but four ways of cooking mush- 
rooms — broiling, roasting, frying them in sweet butter and stew- 
ing them in cream. 

In preparing fresh mushrooms for cooking, wash them as little 
as possible, as washing robs them of their delicate flavor. Always 
bear in mind that the more simply mushrooms are cooked the 
better they are. Like all delicate flavored foods, they are spoiled 
by the addition of strongly flavored condiments. 

Broiled Mushrooms — Select fine, large, flat mushrooms, and be 
sure that they are fresh. If they are dusty, just dip them in cold 
salt water. Then lay them on cheese cloth and let them drain 
thoroughly. When they are dry, cut off the stem quite close to 
the comb, or, what is better, carefully break off the stem. Do not 
throw away the stems. Save them for stewing for soup or for mush- 
room sauce. Having cut or broken off the stems, take a sharp 
silver knife and skin the mushrooms, commencing at the edge 
and finishing at the top. Put them on a gridiron that has been 
well rubbed with sweet butter. Lay the mushrooms on the broiling 
iron with the combs upward. Put a small quantity of butter, a 
little salt and pepper in the center of each comb from where the 
stem has been removed, and let the mushroom remain ovei' the 
fire until the butter melts. Then serve them on thin slices of but- 
tered and well browned toast, which should be cut round or dia- 
mond shape. 

Serve the mushrooms just as quickly as possible after they are 
broiled, as they must be eaten when hot. So nourishing are broiled 
mushrooms that with a light salad they form a sufficient luncheon 
for any one. 



HOW TO COOK MUSHROOMS ol 



Fresh Mushrooms baked:— The followinj;^ is JuHct Carson's 
rccii)e for baked mushrooms, and it is an excellent one: 

Carefully cleanse the mushrooms as in the directions for broiling. 
Cut as many slices of bread as there are mushroom caps, trimming 
off the crust, and having each slice about two inches square. 
Lay the slices of bread in a baking pan and spread each slice with 
butter. Sprinkle each slice with a little salt and j^epper. Next put 
on each slice of bread one or two mushrooms — just enough to cover 
the bread. Put the pan in a hot oven for five minutes. 
Then draw the pan to the front of the oven and season the mush- 
rooms with salt and pepper and put a piece of butter as large as 
a hazel nut in each mushroom cap. Return the pan to the oven 
and finish baking the mushrooms, which arc done as soon as tender. 
Serve them on the bread on a very hot platter. 

Fried Mushrooms — Clean and prepare the mushrooms as for 
broiling. Put some sweet, unsalted butter in a frying pan — enough 
to swim the mushrooms in. Stand the frying pan on a quick fire, 
and when the butter is at boiling heat, carefully drop the mush- 
rooms in and let them fry three minutes, and serve them on thin 
slices of buttered toast. 

Serve a sauce of lemon juice, a little melted butter, salt and red 
pepper with fried mushrooms. 

Stewed Mushrooms — Stewed mushrooms after the .following 
recipe make one of the most delicious of breakfast dishes. It is 
not necessary to use large mushrooms for stewing — small button 
ones will do. Take the mushrooms left in the basket after having 
selected those for broiling, and also use the stems cut from the 
mushrooms prepared for broiling. After cleaning and skinning 
them put them in cold water with a little vinegar, and let them stand 
half an hour. If you have a quart of mushrooms, put a table- 
spoonful of nice fresh butter in a stew pan and stand it on the 
stove. When the butter begins to bubble drop the mushrooms in 
the pan, and after they have cooked a minute season them well 
with salt and black pepper. Now take hold of the handle of the 
stew pan and, while the mushrooms are gently and slowly cooking, 
shake the pan almost constantly to keep the butter from getting 
brown and the mushrooms from sticking. After they have cooked 
eight minutes pour in enough rich, sweet cream to cover the mush- 
rooms to the depth of half an inch, and let them cook about eight 
or ten minutes longer. Serve them in a \'ery hot vegetable dish. 



52 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Do not thicken the cream with flour or with anything. Just cook 
them in this simple way. You will find them perfect. 

Mushroom Stew — Peel, cut up and wash. Stew in a little butter 
with red pepper, salt and a very little garlic. When. soft add the 
milk and allow to stew some more. Set off the fire and beat a 
few eggs in the stew. Serve. 

Mushroom Patties — Mushrooms are now often served at fash- 
ionable parties in the form of patties, very much on the style of 
oyster patties. Peel and cut in small pieces two pounds of nice 
fresh mushrooms. Add one-half cup of butter, pepper and salt, 
and one cup of rich, sweet cream. Stew for 12 minutes. When 
done sprinkle a small tablespoon of flour over them to thicken. 
This will fill about 20 patties. 

Mushroom Sandwiches — Peel one pound of mushrooms and 
chop real fine. Stew for 10 minutes with butter, the size of an egg, 
and pepper and salt. 

Toast about 20 thin slices of bread. Butter them and insert the 
hot stewed mushrooms. Trim the crust and cut diagonally in the 
shape of triangles. Serve real hot. 

Deviled Mushrooms — Chop one quart of mushrooms, season 
with salt and pepper, and a little lemon juice; mix the yolk of 
two hard boiled eggs and two raw ones, stir in a pint of bread 
crumbs and a tablespoonful of butter. Fill baking shells with the 
mixture, cover with bread crumbs and bits of butter. Bake a nice 
brown. 

Mushrooms and Tomatoes — Toast some slices of bread, cut 
them into round pieces two inches in diameter, and butter them, 
Peel some firm tomatoes, cut in thick slices, and lay them on the 
toast. On top of each place a peeled mushroom. Put them in a 
dish that can go on the table, pour a little clarified butter over them, 
put them in a hot oven for five or eight minutes, baste well and 
serve. 

Brown Mushroom Sauce— Make a brown sauce, add to it one 
pint of fresh common mushrooms, simmer gently for fifteen min- 
utes. Take from the fire and add wine if you use it. Some think 
a little mace or nutmeg an improvement, or a little Harvey sauce. 

Cream Mushroom Sauce — Make a sauce, and add one cup of 
fresh common mushrooms chopped fine, cook in a double boiler 
for ten minutes. Stems chopped fine may be used for this sauce. 

Mushroom Soup — Take a good quantity of the mushrooms, cut 
off the lower ends, and wash and peel, then put them in a stew 



I 



H OW TO PRESERVE MUSHROOMS 53 

pan with butter, pepper and salt and a little stock, stir until tender, 
take off and chop in small pieces ; prepare a good stock as for any 
soup, and add it to the mushrooms and the liquor they have been 
stewed in. Boil all together and serve. The stems only may be 
used for this soup with success. 

Roasted Mushrooms — Cut the larger specimens into fine pieces 
and place them in a small dish, with salt, pepper and butter to 
taste ; put in about two tablespoonfuls of water, then fill the dish 
with half-open specimens and buttons; cover tightly and place in 
oven (which must not be overheated,) for about ten or fifteen 
minutes. The jviice of the larger mushrooms will keep. 

Escalloped Mushrooms — Make a sauce of one tablespoonful 
of butter and one of Hour, and two cupfuls of chicken broth or 
white stock ; add to this the chopped stalks of a pint of mushrooms ; 
reduce the same one-half, add a tablespoonful of chopped jDarsley, 
pepper and salt. Turn this sauce into a shallow baking dish, put 
in as many mushrooms as will fill the dish, placing them close to- 
gether, gills up, put a piece of butter on each and sprinkle the tops . 
with crumbs and place in an oven for ten minutes, or until tender 
and serve hot. 

Curried Mushrooms — Stew a quart of button mushrooms for 
about twenty minutes in enough good stock to cover them well, 
add a tablespoonful of butter, thicken with a teaspoonful of curry 
powder and a tablespoonful of flour, boil slowly for ten minutes 
longer, and just before taking from the fire add half a cupful of 
cream; serve hot on a dish with slices of toast. 

Mushrooms a la Bordelaise — Choose some big, firm, fresh mush- 
rooms; peel, wash and drain them; make one or two slits on the 
top side of the mushrooms. Soak for an hour and a half in fine 
oil; pepper and salt. Broil them, turning when half cooked, so 
that each side may be equally broiled. Warm the oil in which the 
mushrooms have been soaked. Season with finely chopped onion 
and parsley. Dish the mushrooms and sprinkle with a few drops 
of vinegar or lemon juice, and pour the hot oil over them. 

HOW TO PRESERVE MUSHROOMS 

Dried Mushrooms — Take medium sized mushrooms, wash and 
peel them for immediate use. Place them for a few moments in 
boiling water to which has been added a little vinegar or lemon 
■juice, to keep the mushrooms from turning black. It is claimed 
by some that distilled water is preferable. The use of salt must 



54 PRACTICAI? CONSIDERATIONS 

be avoided on account of its hygrometric properties. The mush- 
rooms being taken from the boiHng water, are drained and then 
strung up on stout twine, bead Hke, in a shed or well ventilated 
room. Except in warm or dry climates, desiccation must be com- 
pleted by placing the mushrooms in a moderately heated oven. 
In drying, the mushroom loses more or less of its flavor or aroma. 
Before using dried mushrooms they are first soaked in lukewarm 
water. 

Mushroom Condiment — Proceed as above, but force the des- 
iccation. The dried inushrooins are then reduced to powder on 
a fine rasp, and preserved in closed jars. The powder of several 
varieties mixed with 5 or 10 per cent of truffle powder prepared in 
the same manner, forms a condiment which is greatly esteemed by 
epicures. 

Mushrooms in Oil— Peel and prepare the mushrooms as above, 
bleach in boiling water and drain. Place them in a jar and fill 
with olive oil or melted butter. When the jar is cool it is sealed 
and stored in a cool place. Though more expensive this process 
preserves the flavor and aroma of the mushroom. 

Mushroom Ketchup — Take two pounds of fresh mushrooms, 
clean and peel them carefully. Cut in very thin slices and dis- 
pose in an earthen dish, each layer sprinkled with fine salt. On 
the top layer spread about four tablespoons of fresh walnut husks, 
finely chopped. Allow to macerate for four or five days in the 
cellar. When nearly melted pass through clean cloth. Reduce 
on slow fire to about half its volume; add its weight of calf's-foot 
jelly, season with pepper and laurel and reduce to consistency of 
jelly. Preserve in a cool place. 

Preserved Mushrooms — Lambert's Process — Take fresh clean 
mushrooms, peel and place them in cold water containing 3^ 
pound salt to the gallon, this is to prevent discoloring. Drain off 
the water and stew the mushrooms until they have reduced in 
bulk about 40 per cent. This only takes a few minutes. Put up 
in jars and cover the mushrooms with their own juice (for commer- 
cial purposes drain off the juice and fill with clear boiling water, 
this gives them a white appearance), screw on the cover loosely, 
boil for 30 minutes and immediately screw the cover tight. Stand 
the jars on their head for 24 hoiu-s to detect leakage, then boil 
again for one hour. This second boiling should be done exactly 
24 hours after the first. The leaking jars should be processed 
over again. The glass jars should be protected from direct con- 
tact with the bottom of the boiler. 



THE CANNING OF MUSHROOMS 



THE CANNING OF MUSHROOMS 

From "A Complete Course in Canning," republished from a 
series of articles in"Thc Trade" by an expert professor and chemist : 

"Have tlie mushrooms as freshly gathered as possible and of even size. 
Wash, to free from dirt; peel. Blaneh 3 to 4 minutes in bath of water, 12H 
gallons; salt, 5 pounds; citric acid, 1 ounce; place in cans, hot-dip in brine 
(salt 2 pounds, water, 12J^ gallons). Cap, tip and process at 240°F.; one- 
pound cans, 10 minutes; two-pound cans, 12 minutes." 

From Bulletin No. 98, Oregon Agricultural college Experiment 
Station. Preserving Wild Mushrooms: 

"Mushrooms may be canned as easily as fruit, and much easier than some 
vegetables. The buttons ranging in size from the smallest to those with the 
cup breaking from the stem are most desirable for canning, as they remain 
firm and white after being heated. When sufficient buttons are gathered they 
are cleaned by peeling, or by wiping with a cloth, removing any soiled spots 
or earth which may have adhered to them; the stems are cut off, leaving from 
one-half to one inch remaining attached to the cap; they may then be placed in 
a granite iron kettle and heated without water until shrinking ceases, after 
which they are placed in cans that have previously been cleaned and scalded, 
and the liquor poured over them, completely filling the can. 

"If glass cans are used, after filling they are placed in any kind of vessel 
provided with a cover and containing a small amount of hot water. A sheet 
of asbestos, or a thin layer of excelsior is placed in the boiler to prevent the 
glass coming in contact with the bottom. The caps are placed loosely on the 
cans and w-ith steamer cover in place, allow the water to simmer for half an 
hour. Upon removing the cover from the steamer, immediately screw the 
can covers down as tightly as possible, then place the cans away to cool, 
upside down, in order to detect any leak. If all are perfectly sealed, allow 
them to stand until the next day at the same time, when they are again heated 
in the same manner except that the time must be prolonged to one hour, be- 
cause the contents of the cans are cold. Repeat this operation again the third 
day, which will complete the sterilization, and the mushrooms will be found to 
be as nearly like the fresh article as it is possible to have them. They keep 
well and do not deteriorate in consistency nor flavor. The cans must be kept 
sealed throughout the operation. 

"When tin cans are used, they are handled in the same manner as the glass 
ones, with the exception of soldering the lid as soon as the can is filled, leaving 
the vent open until after heating the first time, when it is immediately closed 
with a drop of solder while can is hot, thus forming a partial vacuum that takes 
up the expansion caused by subsequent heatings. 

"This method of sterilizing kills the vegetative germ-cell at its first heating, 
and the intermission between heatings induces the spores to germinate into 
cells, thus enabling a much lower temperature to be used than what would be 
required to kill the spores. 

"If it is desirable to sterilize the mushrooms at one operation, the cans should 
be filled as already described, and, after sealing, heat them to a temperature of 
240° F. for thirty minutes. This, however, requires a steam chest capable 



56 PRACTICAL* CONSIDERATIONS 

of withstanding a pressure of over fifteen pounds to the squai'e inch and the 
flavor and texture of the article being canned is materially impaired by this 
high temperature. 

"When the older mushrooms are used for canning, they reduce very much in 
bulk, becoming mushy and turn black after being heated. They do not pre- 
sent such a tempting appearance, but the flavor' is not imi:)a!red. A good use 
to make of older mushrooms is to dry them." 

From Consular Reports, Volume 50, No. 186, March, 1896. 
"The Mushroom Industry in France." — Preserving Mushrooms: 

"The most ancient method, and the one generally employed for preserving 
mushrooms for household purposes, is that of drying. Mushrooms of medium 
size are preferred, and the drying is accomplished either by natural or arti- 
ficial heat. Carefully skin and clean them, just as if they were to be used at once, 
then plunge them in boiling water, into which the juice of a lemon has been 
scjueezed or vinegar poured. Stir a few seconds and remove them. This is 
to prevent the mushrooms from turning black. Be very careful not to allow 
any salt or saline matter to come near the mushrooms. 

"After taking the mushrooms from the boiling water, allow them to drain 
well on a wire screen; then string them like beads and stretch the string from 
wall to wall in a well ventilated room. Do not permit the mushrooms to 
touch each other. If the season or climate be too humid, place the strings 
of mushrooms in a gently heated oven. When thoroughly dry, put them in 
bags or boxes in a room perfectly devoid of moisture. It is true that mush- 
rooms thus treated lose part of their aroma and flavor, but they keep 
indefinitely, and are an article of standard commercial value in France. 

"Before cooking the dried mushrooms, they must be soaked in warm water 
or milk to restore them. The dried mushroom is extensively used as a condi- 
ment in France, and is highly appreciated. It is simply reduced to a fine 
powder and mixed with one-tenth to one-twentieth truffle powder. 

"The process of conserving mushrooms in oil or melted butter, is, of course, 
more costly than drying, but the aroma and flavor are retained. Proceed to 
prepare the mushrooms exactly as above described, and let them drain well, 
but, of course, do not dry them. After sufficient draining, place them one 
by one in wide-mouthed bottles and pour over them melted butter or warm 
olive oil. Then cork and seal the bottles and put them in a cool place. There 
is great danger of fermentation, especially in the case of the melted butter, 
if the temperature of the storage room be too high. 

"The preservation of mushrooms as here recited is resorted to mostly by 
households or dealers on a small scale. The large manufacturers invariably 
employ the 'Appert' process. 

" 'Appert' Process — The mushrooms are peeled and thrown in water made 
slightly acid with vinegar. They are then allowed to drain well, after which 
they are plunged in boiling butter until they are half-cooked or parboiled, 
then placed one by one in wide-mouthed bottles. Each bottle must contain 
three-fourths of its full capacity. The bottles are now well corked and the 
corks tightly and very securely held in place by strings. Then the bottles 
are placed in large caldrons of cold water, the bottoms of which have been 
covered with straw. 



Till': CANNING OF MrSHROOMS 



"The butUt's are also wrapped in straw to prevent their breaking. The eal- 
drons are then put on the fire and the water slowly brought up to the b(jiling 
point, whieh should continue ten minutes. Tlie caldrons are then taken 
from the fire and the water allowed to cool gradually, after which the bottles 
are removed and sealed with wax. 

"The small mushrooms, known as Paris mushrooms or 'Champignons de 
Paris,' are cultivated in the Bordeaux district to be sent to market or tinned. 
The mushrooms which are preserved are carefully washed, scraped, and then 
placed with a certain amount of water in tin cans, and the cans are boiled or 
steamed so that the mushrooms may be partially cooked. In some instances, 
where it is found necessary, the mushrooms are bleached by a weak solution 
of citric acid or lemon juice; this in no way improves the taste or flavor of the 
mushroom, but merely enhances its appearance. When this vegetable is 
used in the household the mushrooms may be taken out of the tin and cooked 
in any way desirable, or if the vegetable is merely used for the purpose of 
decorating the dish of meat, the mushrooms are sufficiently cooked to be eaten 
as they are. 

"The center of the fresh mushroom industry is, of course, at Paris. Here 
mushrooms are gathered every morning, trimmed, washed, and sorted ac- 
cording to size and quality preparatory for the markets. Those that are pre- 
served are sent to the factories for canning, where they are again washed in 
salt and water, selected and separated according to the quality, and then slight- 
ly cooked before being placed in tins. After the tins have been closed and sold- 
ered, they are then boiled again, in order that they may be more perfect in 
their preservation. Mushrooms are never washed in salt water unless for 
preserving purposes." 

From "Preserved Mushrooms," K. Wcinhaiiscn, Pure Products, 
Volume G, No. 11, pa^^e 645: 

"The young harvested mushrooms should be transported to the cooking 
room with as little delay as possible. The preliminary work varies according 
to the variety. The large mushrooms with open head are to be deprived of 
their stems, and the gills and upper skin of the head must be removed. It 
is best, however, to take the mushrooms when the head is still closed, as is 
the case when they are still young. When the above described operation is 
not necessary, the young mushrooms may be rapidly cleaned as follows: 
As much of the stem is cut away as is contaminated with dirt. The mush- 
rooms are then immediately placed in salt water (1 handful of salt to 2 or 3 
quarts of water); each mushroom is then individually inspected and any im- 
purities removed. During this operation the mushrooms are removed as 
little as possible from the water in order to prevent a brownish discoloration 
by contact with the air. Instead of salt, a little citric acid may be dissolved 
in the water. The mushrooms are ne.Kt w-ashed in fresh salt water and then 
transferred to a suitable vessel for the blanching (it is better to use an earthen- 
ware or porcelain-lined vessel, if possible). The blanching is done with a 
little water over the fire. 

"In consequence of their high albumen content, the mushrooms a^-e liable 
to become indigestible when cooked too long. This fact is too little regarded 
in most reci])es for preserving mushrooms, some of which direct that they 



58 practicaI considerations 

should be boiled for 25 or 30 minutes. Half of this time is sufficient to cause the 
mushrooms to shrink. This shrinkage is necessary before they are filled into 
the glasses or cans, since otherwise these receptacles would, after sterilization, 
be only half full. 

"The process of blanching can be shortened considerably by the addition 
of ordinary cooking soda, the use of which quickly brings about the softening 
of the mushrooms in the blanching bottle, and they become much softer 
than where soda is not used at all. As much soda as will lie on the point of 
a knife will be sufficient for 2 pounds of mushrooms. After the blanching, the 
mass is turned out on a sieve, the broth is strained, seasoned with a little salt, 
and further heated on the stove while the mushrooms are being filled into the 
cans. After placing the mushrooms in the cans the filling is completed by the 
addition of the salted broth, the cans are closed and sterilized in the open water 
bath for 30 minutes, the sterilization being repeated after 24 hours to kill off 
any spores which may have germinated in the meantime." 



THE COMPOST 59 



PART II 
TECHNICAL STUDIES 



THE COMPOST 1 

1 . SELECTION OF THE MANURE 

What manure should we select? Experience has demonstrated 
that the use of horse manure has given the best results, or to be 
clearer, has given the greatest weight in mushrooms in proportion 
to the quantity of manure used. On the whole the real profes- 
sional mushroom culture should be carried on by means of horse 
manure. 

The best horse manure is obtained from the animals doing heavy 
work. It is, in fact, the manure that is most charged with urea, the 
base of ammonious fermentation. We will see in the following 
article why it is given the preference. We do not take any stock 
in the sayings of people who establish a difference between the 
manure from stallions, geldings and mares.*** The manure from 
buggy horses is of inferior quality because the straw is too often re- 
newed in the stables. Such manure is too much loaded with straw, 
not sufficiently impregnated with urine, nor mixed with droppings. 
In districts where horses are fed without grain but with green fod- 
der, pulps or leguminous foods, the manure is also of inferior 
quality. 

We must reject manure mixed with garbage, green stuff, etc., 
for these render it less homogeneous and harder to work. What is 
worse, such filth is a source of complex fermentations which may 
develop parasitic diseases and destructive vermin against which 
we would have to struggle with great difficulty.*** 

It is said that rye straw manure is better than wheat straw 
manure. Manure must be of regular composition. It must also 
be of recent origin, to have retained to the highest degree all its 
fermentable qualities. If it has been for a long time exposed to 
the air, or to the sun; if it has been washed by rains, it has lost the 
largest part of its ammonious products. Thus it must be obtained 
in places having a sufficiently large number of horses to fill each 
load or car lot with manure not more than a week old at the most. 



1 S. Reillet, in "La Culture des Champignons Comestibles," pp. 6, 23, 53, 67, 79, 117. 



60 tech:^ical studies 



New additions have been suggested as a remedy to poor manures ; 
also ammonious or nitrous chemicals, liquid manure sprinklings, 
etc., but the difificulty is to dose the necessary quantities and to 
obtain by a chemical reaction the temperature necessary to the 
transformation of the cellulose of the straw — therefore, the result is 
less satisfactory. It is, nevertheless, an application worth trying 
when through lack of foresight or by accident we are caught with 
a lot of poor manure on our hands for which we have no other 
use.*** 

2. GOOD MANURE 

We have said that the best material is maniu-e from hard-working 
horses. It looks like wheat or rye straw which is the base of it, 
but it must be of a darker color, seeming golden yellow in sun- 
light. This appearance is due to the moistening of the straw by 
the urine of the horses. In it should be found the chunks of 
droppings, which should not predominate, but be present in 
a quantity just sufificient to give to the straw a pasty sheath at the 
time of the turning. In that way the moisture of the liquid manure 
is maintained around the straw and acts more rapidly and efficient- 
ly in disintegrating the fibre and transforming the cellulose into 
humus during the fermentation. Good manure should be free 
of foreign elements such as greens, garbage, stones and hard rub- 
bish, etc.; these should be removed. 

At the time of its reception the manure must be simply moist 
and not wet and oozing water ; it must release a strong ammonious 
odor and must not contain already fermented black or dark brown 
parts, nor pale, dry or washed strawy parts. These conditions 
are difficult to realize in practice; but they exist in principle when 
the manure is of recent formation, and none should be accepted 
that is more than a week or ten days old. 

To obtain good manure, the best plan is to personally gather 
it in the stables by wagon loads.*** We should be guided by the 
habitual care and the feed given to the horses by their owners.*** 
The quantity should be sufficient for a good fermentation, at least 
two to four cubic meters.*** In practice it is often difficult to be 
well supplied; and when, notwithstanding all the precautions 
taken, or because the imposed conditions cannot be realized, the 
manure that we have bought does not seem suitably composed, 
we must add to it by mixtures, cullings or additions.*** Thus, to 
manures too rich in droppings we add straw; to those with a sur- 
plus of straw we cull out the excess of straw that will be utilized 
for covers or for future operations ; to manures too dry or too poor 
we add liquid manure; to those that are too wet, we add plaster 
or unslaked lime in lumps, which absorbs part of the water while 
raising the temperature.*** 

3. WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO PREPARE THE MANURE? 

In nature, mushrooms are bom, grow and fruit, that is to say, 
form caps, in pastures or woods in special places. These places 



THE COMPOST 61 



are those where vegetable remains have become transformed 
into humus through atmospheric agents and natural fennents. 
We know that the vegetable remains, grasses, leaves and small 
branches rot (this is the accepted term) imder various influences. 
The agglutinous matters become dissolved, the cellulosic fibres 
become separated, the cellulose becomes alterated, and, at the end 
of a certain time there is formed a dark or brownish matter more 
or less pulverulent, called humus. 

The humus is a complex matter as yet poorly defined; it is a 
mixture in which the agronomists agree to distinguish three prin- 
ciples : 

1. The vasculose or transformed cellulose, insoluble even in 
alkaline liquids. 

2. The brownish matter, soluble in alkaline liquids, whose 
principal element is the humic acid and which is a mixture of hu- 
mates. 

3. The various mineral salts, carbonates, nitrates, phosphates, 
sulphates, some soluble, others insoluble, which are retained with 
the humates by the vasculose operating as a sponge. 

We easily conceive, that this material, the humus, is eminently 
proper to the fundamental phenomenon of the life of the vege- 
tables, which consists in drawing up — "pumping" — the sap and the 
nutrient salts through the rootlets by means of the phenomenon of 
osmosis. 

The higher fungi do not escape the common law of the vege- 
tables; the humus is favorable to their development. Does this 
mean that all superior fungi lequire humus to fruit? Evidently 
not. It happens even that some mushrooms, living generally 
on humus, can fruit on a medium not containing the least trace of 
it when they are placed under certain conditions. To cite only one 
instance known to mushroom growers, it occurs sometimes that 
the mycelium of the cultivated mushroom leaves the beds, runs 
on the ground, climbs on the side walls of the caves, and fruits in 
cavities where there is not the least trace of humus, but this is an 
accidental occurrence ; and yet we may say, that through some 
filaments at least, the mushroom is in relation with the humus 
of the manure. 

If in nature the mushrooms in general live on humus, to culti- 
vate the same we must seed them or transplant them in media 
containing humus as a base. It is natural to add: humus rich in 
nutritious assimilable substances, not only in nitrogenous organic 
products, but also in soluble mineral salts. 

There lies the foundation of the culture. We must thus select 
and prepare a good humus. 

Among the vegetable remains transformable into humus, the 
leaves and the straw are the most common and the most apt to 
modifications. We notice, by the way, that many species of 



62 TECHMICAT. STUDIES 



fungi grow also on decayed wood and on fruits in a state of de- 
composition. But the straw is the best substratum. More so 
than the leaves, the straw absorbs the liquids in great abundance; 
it is the most mineralized vegetable refuse; finally the texture of 
the cells of the straw and their lengthwise disposition facilitates 
the development of the mycelium which extends itself by lengthen- 
ing and by ramifications. We must thus take straw and trans- 
forni it into humus. 

' Again let. us examine what takes place most frequently in 
nature concerning the straw of the grasses, the leaves and various 
herbs. They decay in heaps by a slow and incomplete labor. 
The ferments of putrif action at first, together with the moisture, 
start their work in the interior, but they act slowly and require the 
aid of other organisms. The hatching of insect eggs, the work 
of the worms, the germination of the seeds, are many causes 
which induce a motion in the mass, let in the air and abandon it 
to other ferments, called aerobies whose action is much more in- 
tense. Molds, that is to say vegetable organisms, are bom 
and propagated on the surface, then the superior fungi take their 
turn; their vegetation acts again on the mass of humus and the 
transformation goes on. We know very well that the "spent bed," 
meaning the manure after the mushrooms have been harvested, 
is a good deal more pulverulent, has taken a light brown tint and 
has completely lost the appearance that the manure had in the 
heap, or in the beds before the spawning. When the superior 
fungi have done their work, other vegetables improve from the 
humus; it is for that reason that spent mushroom beds are used in 
horticulture. We can thus see that a whole series of organisms 
govern the transformation of vegetable remains into humus, but 
only in proportion to the conditions they find adapted to their ex- 
istence. They require first a suitable food, then moisture, the 
temperature, the propitious ventilation. 

The part of the mushroom grower being to help the natural 
phenomena, to promote their evolution in as rapid a manner as 
possible and in any case more promptly and more surely than in 
nature, we see at once that, to raise the mushrooms, we must 
facilitate the transformation of the straw into humus by aiding 
and accelerating the vitality of the transforming organisms. 

Instead of waiting until the phenomena occur, we must pro- 
mote the immediate realization of the same, and, if the suitable 
conditions are fulfilled, the transformation becomes active and in- 
tense. If the straws have been sprinkled and inixed with animal 
dejections, if the heap is stirred to aerate it, if it is sprinkled with 
water to facilitate the contact and the dissolution of the products — 
in one word, if we feed the straw and if we prepare it — we obtain 
more rapidly and more surely the intended results. So then the 
manure, that is to say the straw plus the chemical elements that 
we find in the urine and excrements of the animals quite naturally 
sowed, moreover, with the organisms of fermentation gathered 



THE COMPOST 63 



from nearly everywhere, has become a composition very easily and 
rapidly transfonnable into a humus rich and suitable for the 
mushroom culture. But we must give to all elements present the 
means of becoming transformed; the air, the heat, the moisture, 
the stirring, the division to facilitate the contact, etc., and we must 
proceed to those operations at the proper time and for the desired 
period, in order that all things may take place rapidly and con- 
veniently. All the organisms and chemical elements, in effecting 
their part give rise indeed to transformed products and the action 
must not become localized, but must spread through the whole 
mass. This makes sufficiently plain, we hope, the reason why 
manure has to be prepared.*** 

We want to say now, 1st, that we can take vegetable refuse other 
than straw to raise mushrooms; 2nd,, that we can help the trans- 
formation into humus through other means than the addition of 
animal dejections; 3rd, that the preparation of the manure and 
other substrata for the mushroom culture can and must vary ac- 
cording to the initial composition, the physical state at the begin- 
ning, etc.*** 

The straw litter being the most commonly used, the manure 
from animals being very easily obtained, it is to them that we have 
quite naturally had recourse. Custom has all the more consecrated 
the use of it, because the work is relatively easy, and no recourse 
is necessary to artificial means or to foreign products. 

This does not mean that through other processes, by using other 
compositions, we could not also arrive at good results. 

4. PREPARATION 

***The mushroom grower defines well prepared manure as "suit- 
ably moist and soft." It is sufficient to have only once-touched, 
well-prepared manure to readily appreciate that physical state. 

The straw, which was formerly stiff and of a clear yellow tint, 
is now flexible and supple, the straws have taken the appearance 
of a sort of brown tow. There are no more whole droppings, 
these have become a kind of mud, or rather a coarse moist powder, 
which is spread through the whole mass. The manure has taken 
a reddish or clear brown tint, the color of brown earth, or of old 
flat tiles covering ancient farmhouses. The straws are more or 
less covered with a whitish efflorescence, grained, as if they had 
been sprinkled with fine white salt. This efflorescence is neverthe- 
less quite'^different in appearance from the white molds and in 
particular^from the disease called the plaster mold; it is localized 
on each straw, independently from the next straws. It is sufficient 
to have only once recognized this appearance and it will not be 
mistaken thereafter. The ammonious odor has completely dis- 
appeared; it is succeeded by a sweet odor, rather agreeable, recalling 
the mushroom scent. The whole has a sufficiently homogeneous 
appearance, that is, all the parts of the manure are nearly alike; 
we don't single out any more droppings, nor stiff and clear yellow 



64 techRi 



CAL STUDIES 



straws; all is supple, filamentous, pithy; all is of the same brown 
shade, neither too wet nor too dry, but only lukewarm and moist. 

That is, as nearly as it can be described, the physical appearance 
which must be presented by the manure. 

We do not always succeed, and, to make ourselves well under- 
stood, let us show the appearance of manure that is imperfectly 
prepared. 

Three states are well known by the mushroom growers; the 
green manure, the greasy manure, the burned manure. 

The green manure is that which has not been sufficiently worked. 
The straw is still rigid and the fibres poorly disintegrated; it con- 
tains yellowish straws, the ammonious odor has not totally dis- 
appeared and is manifest, if not throughout, at least in certain 
parts, when they are turned over. The manure is still heating to 
a temperature difficult to bear by the hand. 

The ammonious odor is often associated with a slightly sour 
odor like that of heated wet hay. This happens with manure poor 
in urine and droppings, that has been worked too slowly, and has 
not heated enough. It is the indication of the development of 
noxious molds such as the vert-de-gris, the plaster mold, etc. 

The greasy manure is that which has undergone a commence- 
ment of putrid fermentation. It is very easily detected. It is 
generally much too wet, oozes liquid when squeezed in the hand, 
and leaves a stickyish brownish mass that is well known in husban- 
dry as "black butter." The straws have become decomposed, the 
tint of the manure has become much darker, turning to brownish 
black, the odor has become disagreeable, repulsive, like all odors 
of decay. It is the result of an excess of sprinkling, an insufficient 
airing of the heap, etc. 

The burned manure is that which has heated too much in the 
heap; it is nearly always because it has been sprinkled neither suf- 
ficiently nor at the right time. The heat has reached a very high 
degree, going beyond 212° F., a very great evaporation has taken 
place. The dried-up straw has undergone a commencement of 
combustion and turns into coal. The manure falls into dust. 
Needless to say that such manure has lost most of its nourishing 
qualities for plants, and, while we can still utilize green manure or 
greasy manure, burned manure has no further utility.*** 

5. THE MAKING UP 

The manure conveyed by wagon loads upon the selected lo- 
cation is unloaded in irregular heaps, and continues to ferment. 
Such fermentation, started in the special manure pits, etc., in- 
creases during the transportation and manipulations. We must 
thus immediately proceed to the making up of a rick. The site 
being chosen, on a spot well cleaned and disinfected with water 



THE COMPOST 65 



containing 23^ % of lysol, we spread the manure with the fork in 
slant layers so as to fonii a height of 5 feet, measured vertically. 
In the summer we endeavor to avoid violent heating of the manure, 
and to reduce the height of the ricks to the minimum. In the win- 
ter, on the contrary, and during the season when the ricks are 
most of the time exposed to rains and cold, there is an advantage 
in reducing the surface and to increase the height to 5 feet. 

Each forkful must be stirred, shaken, whipped, to break the 
straws, divide the droppings, spread the locks of straw, untie the 
knots and the bands. The clever hand soon learns to handle 
the fork in a suitable manner to produce such result; there is in 
particular to acquire a special movement of the wrist which facili- 
tates the spreading. We take out, if necessary, all foreign bodies, 
stones and sods, refuse, wood, hay locks, rags, etc. Each layer 
of manure of 9 to 18 inches in thickness, beaten with the fork, 
is moreover trampled on the top by a man who sprinkles a rainlike 
mist over the whole surface of the layer by means of a fine sprayer. 
It is generally the foreman who sprinkles and does the trampling, 
watching at the same time the hands who are making up the rick. 
These, two or more in number, are placed between the irregular 
heaps unloaded by the wagons and the rick which is in course of 
construction. They require only the necessary space for the hand- 
ling of the fork, or four to five feet of width to reduce their move- 
ments to a ininimum and avoid unnecessary labor. The hands 
placed on the side have the care of trimming the rick, by placing 
on the top of the pile prepared forksful, and settling the same with 
a stroke of the fork or a kick. It is very important for the ease 
of the subsequent work, to dispose the layers in a slanting manner 
and avoid working by horizontal layers placed over one another as 
still practiced by a number of mushroom growers.*** In a general 
way, it is at the beginning of the work that the manure has to be 
most sprinkled. Water is indeed indispensable to the start and 
to the development of the fennentations. It dissolves the gases 
that are formed (carbonic acid and ammonia), it helps the forma- 
tion of carbonate of ammonia, dissolves it and soaks the straws 
with this alkaline solution, which acts in turn toward the decom- 
position of the cellulose. 

We then leave the fermentation go on, the temperature of the 
pile rises in a very perceptible and gradual manner ; we notice the 
pile smoking, that is to say, emit water vapor. If we plunge in 
the pile a sufficiently long thermometer, we find that at the base the 
temperature hardly exceeds 77° F.; as we go still higher up the 
temperature rises to 86° or 104°, we meet a layer where the tem- 
perature is very high, especially three or four days after the mak- 
ing up of the pile, we observe 140°, 176°, and even higher temper- 
atures; in the upper parts, the temperature decreases veiy rapidly, 
so that the uppermost layer, of a thickness of 4' to 8 inches, is near- 
ly even with the exterior temperature, or an average of 50° to 
00° in the winter and 77° to 104° in the summer. If we concede 
to the rick a height of from 3 to 5 feet, it is by reason of the height 



66 TECHNICAL STUDIES 



of the layers where the above-mentioned temperatures are ob- 
served. Indeed it is only at 20 or 30 inches from the ground that 
we begin to locate the real rise of temperature. On the other hand, 
as this rise does not take place in the uppermost layer which is 8 
inches thick, and since the layer where the maximum temperature 
takes place should be at least from 10 to 12 inches in thickness, 
we can readily see that a height of from 3 to 5 feet is indispen- 
sable. It can be slight in the summer, because the sun, beating 
the pile, warms the mass. On the other hand, it is not necessary 
in the winter to increase such height beyond measure for two 
reasons: first, the manipulation would become more difficult; 
but above all things, it is essential that the air penetrate the mass 
easily in order that the fermentation may take place in a suitable 
manner. Hence the more we raise the height the more we reduce 
the aerated surface. 

With those temperature phenomena, we observe transformation 
phenomena of the straw and also chemical actions. If we stir 
the manure, we notice that the straw has become irregularly al- 
tered in some places. In certain spots it has hardly changed; 
in others, it has turned slightly brownish, and has become soft, 
finally, in other spots, it has become quite brown and is covered 
with a whitish and grainy efflorescence. 

At the time we stir, we scent a release of ammonious odor. 
These manifestations are the proof of two fermentations; one of 
these, the ammonious fermentation transforming the urea of 
the urine into ammonia, a part of which escapes in the air, the other 
part being retained as we will see immediately. The other fer- 
mentation is that of the materials of the straw (hydrates of car- 
bon and soluble cellulose). Several aerobic ferments, that is to 
say requiring air to live, act under the circumstances such as the 
"bacillus amylobacter." These two fermentations are the more 
active as the aeration is improved. If the manure is not packed, 
being, however, sufficiently wet, these fermentations acquire con- 
siderable activity and the temperature rises. It is between 140° 
and 176° that their action seems to be the most efficient. It is 
to limit the temperattue to that degree that we pack the manure 
by treading it; we also increase in this manner the contact of the 
elements in reaction. The addition of water has also resulted in 
facilitating the contact and to dissolve a part of the products of 
the chemical decompositions. At the same time, in the lower part 
of the heap, less aerated, the decomposition of the cellulose takes 
place through the formenic ferment with production of carbonic 
acid. This gas rises in the heaps, meeting the ammonious water 
and there carbonate of ammonia is produced. The carbonate of 
ammonia in solution , has itself a decomposing action on the straw 
and, filtering through the heap, facilitates the transformation in 
the lower part. 

At the end of a certain time, through the more abundant form- 
ation of decomposition products, through the packing of the maniu^e 



THE COMPOST 67 



suspending the introduction of air, also through the draining of 
the water, these fermentations become slower and it is then that 
it becomes necessary to stir the heap in order to encourage the 
fermentation of the parts that have not yet been transformed. 
While this "turning" contributes towards obtaining the homo- 
genity of the manure, it permits the reintroduction of the air, 
the repartition of the decomposing products in the mass and, con- 
sequently, the continuation of the transformation. 

It must be borne in mind that we must not either provoke a 
too rapid action on the straw, or we would go beyond the mark. 
We must not forget that the mushroom is itself an element pro- 
ceeding to the transformation of vegetable refuse into humus and 
that, in order to be able to start and to develop itself, which is the 
aim of the culture, the manure must have attained a special degree 
of transformation, not more, not less; as it is absolutely necessary 
that there should not be too much urine in order to prevent the 
ammonious ferment to take the upper hand, or that the manure 
be not packed to excess in order to prevent the formenic ferment 
to take the upper hand.*** 

6. THE TURNING 

We have examined what were the chief dispositions- to take in 
undertaking the preparation of the manure intended for mush- 
room culture. After having made up a rick, we leave it work, 
ferment, by simply abandoning it to itself. We have, nevertheless, 
to add a few details concerning the accomplished operations. 

We must take care while handling with the fork the manure 
that we arrange in a rick, to thoroughly mix the wet parts with 
the dr^^er parts; the clear droppings with the straw; the portions 
that have started to rot, like those coming from the bottom of 
the litters, or from the bottom of the cars in which the transpor- 
tation has taken several days, or also from the base of the heaps, 
and from the bottom of the pits, where the producers place the 
manure coming from the bam — to mix the same, we say, with the 
scarcely transformed portions of the surface. We have to strive 
indeed to make up a mixture, a mass, as homogeneous as possible. 

A second point to observe is, in the making up of the slant 
layers of the rick, while shaking and mixing the manure to prevent 
the droppings from falling in too great quantities at the base of the 
incline. Those escaping the fork have to be picked up with the 
wooden shovel, thrown back, and spread on the surface; the latter 
being oblique, easily retains the same, provided we are careful. 
While sprinkling we have to water more abundantly the sides and 
the dry parts. Even in certain cases we have to avoid sprinkling 
parts that seem rotten or too wet. In treading the'rick to pack the 
manure, we have to compress the edges, to favor the fermentation. 
The edges have indeed always a sufficient contact with the ex- 
terior air, and, should we not pack the same, they would dry up 



68 TECHNKAL STUDIES 



too fast under the influence of the wind. . If, after the making up 
and completion of the rick, the manure should prove to be too 
dry, or too baked (that is to say that the parts where local exag- 
gerated fennentation has taken place, at a high temperature, 
predominate), it is to our advantage to tread anew and to pack 
the surface in order that the moist vapor, product of the interior 
fermentation, should escape with less facility and better impreg- 
nate the interior. If the manure is black and very wet, it is to 
our advantage to avoid packing it too much to let the air penetrate 
it more easily, to develop the oxidation more rapidly and more 
powerfully, to cause the heat to raise and evaporate the excess of 
water. 

The above observations perhaps better concern the care to be 
given at the time of the turning. 

The turning operation consists in retaking the manure from the 
rick after it has been left to ferment from six to eight days and 
making it up into another heap or rick. 

We attack the side by which we have tenninated the former oper- 
ation. We operate exactly in the same manner as for the making 
up of the rick the first time. In working properly, we come to 
turn the manure almost on its own space; that is to say, to tear 
down the first rick, to reconstruct it on its own space, at four to 
five feet near, just the space necessary to the men for the handling 
of the fork. It is very important to operate in this manner, since 
we avoid at the same time a loss of time and a waste of energy in 
the workmanship. In effecting the turning, we take all the pre- 
cautions that we have explained concerning the shaking, the mix- 
ing of the manure, in order to keep on breaking the straw, to spread 
the droppings, and to make the whole homogeneous. 

To that end, we have to watch so as to bring into the interior 
that which was on the edges, and to place on the other hand on 
the sides and on the surface the portions of the interior. At the 
turning, we have to sprinkle a good deal less than at the first oper- 
ation of tearing down; most of the time, even if we operate in the 
winter and out doors, it is not necessary to sprinkle at each turning. 
It is impossible to give exact indications concerning the question 
of sprinkling during the working of the manure, as we can not fore- 
see the quantity of rain that will fall on the rick. A measure of 
water quantities can be better made when we work on ricks under 
cover, or located in caves near the entrance; but everything 
still depends on the state of moisture of the manure that we re- 
ceive to work, or of the condition .of the rick that we are about 
to turn. It is thus a question of experience, and the safest guide 
is the impression that the manure gives, when we squeeze a cer- 
tain quantity of it into the hand. Although after the first tearing 
down of the heap we may concede that a handful of manure, thus 
squeezed, oozes a little liquid manure it is better that this fact 
vshould not take place any more after the first turning, and should 
never occur after the second turning. This second turning is 



THE COMPOST 69 



accomplished from six to eight days after the first, operating al- 
ways in the same manner. It is sometimes necessary to pro- 
ceed to a third turning. 

Finally, we have left the manure to ferment, and the chemical 
reactions to take place, during a period of from twenty to thirty 
days, a delay which can scarcely be reduced only in certain cases 
in the summer. In order to produce such fermentation and re- 
actions in a suitable manner we have to stir the whole mass three 
or four times, sprinkle it when it seems too dry, and facilitate 
the drying by means of heating if it seems too wet. 

We cannot conclude in a better way than in recalling what we 
have already said in defining the prepared manure. The aim 
to attain is: 1st, From a physical standpoint we must reach a suit- 
able softness of the straw fibres, a complete mangling of the straws 
however without being cut too short. We must attain this special 
state of humus, of incompletely transformed cellulose, which 
does hardly contain any more gum, glucose, starch, in one word, 
sticky pioducts. The manure is only a network of insoluble 
cellulose or vasculose, not dusty yet. Finally it is a matter in 
a physical state favorable to the support and propagation of the 
mycelial filaments. 

2nd. From a chemical standpoint there must, in the midst of 
this substratum, exist chemical and physiological elements, in 
suitable composition and proportions to permit the life operations 
of the mycelium to take place. That is to say, that there must 
be a suitable degree of moisture, giving to the hand a sensation 
rather somewhat dry than too wet, well defined by the word 
moist, indicating at the same time a certain degree of heat that we 
will characterize by 59° to 77°; the mass must also contain the 
humates, assimilable nitrogenous piinciples, and the alkaline min- 
eral salts, without which life, that is to say the absorption of the 
sap, the fonnation of the cells and the respiration of the 
mushroom could not exist. 



Note — This should impress us with the principles governing the 
preparation of the manure. We take it for granted that the above 
article was written for the benefit of the mushroom growers of 
France, where conditions differ with ours in many details, some of 
which are of capital importance. We will mention the most im- 
portant one, the retention of all the urine in the straw of the manure, 
which is made possible only in stables equipped with a waterproof 
floor. We do not give this detail much consideration in construct- 
ing a stable and as a consequence only a part of the urine is re- 
tained in the straw; such manure of course is of poorer quality. 
We usually make up for such loss by obtaining manure which does 
not contain so much straw. Such manure being of a shorter com- 
position should not be trampled as much ; should receive one more 
manipulation and requires a shorter interval between manipu- 
lations. 



70 TECHNICAL STUDIES 



THE PART OF THE FERMENTS IN THE TRANSFORMATION 

OF THE MANURE ^ 

The name of ferments is given to organic bodies enjoying the property of 
exercising a considerable chemical reaction, relatively, to their mass. A very 
small quantity is sufficient to transform an unlimited quantity, or nearly so, 
of certain bodies, such as manure. 

We distinguish actually two kinds of ferments; one kind of these ferments 
follows well defined chemical principles, although their composition is not yet 
perfectly known; they are soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. They are 
secretive products of vegetable or animal cells, but they are not organized 
bodies; they are generally called diastases. The others, named organized 
ferments, are represented by living organisms, that is to say, susceptible of 
growing in volume and of reproducing their kind. It is certain that these 
two kinds of ferments play their part in the transformation of the manure 
which brings it to a state of humus. But the part of the diastases, at least in 
the transformation of the manure, is very difficult to characterize, while the 
part of the organized ferments is exceedingly powerful and is recognized by 
characteristics perceptible to our senses. 

Diastases — The diastases, which, accordi'ng to Berthelot are very likely 
products of live cells, and which may be classed among the albuminoid matters, 
act in a large number of transformations of organic bodies, such as the trans- 
formation of sugar into alcohol and that of milk into casein. We note that 
action of various diastases in the digestive acts of men and animals, in the 
fermentation of juices attending the fabrication of wine, beer, etc. A good 
many of these diastases are the products of organized ferments such as yeasts 
and molds, which we compare scientifically to fungi or to algee. 

We say that the diastases certainly act in the transformation of the manure. 
In fact, to the decomposition of the urea, of the cellulose, of the starch, of the 
glucose, of the gums, etc., correspond diastases characterized as urase, cytase, 
amylase, etc. 

The diastases act generally by fixation of the elements of the water on the 
bodies in reaction; some act by oxydation; in one instance they give im- 
mediately definitive products, in another instance they give rise to inter- 
mediate bodies. One of the characteristics of the reactions is the rapidity 
with which they produce themselves, and the small quantity of diastases 
necessary to act on a large quantity of matter. This explains why, without 
ever adding anything to the manure, there is always found the sufficient and 
necessary ferments to start the transformation of its own accord. The dias- 
tases, like the organized ferments of which we will speak later, are, without 
any doubt, carried by the dejections of the animals who have themselves gath- 
ered the germs in their food. 

The German chemist Fischer has tried to explain that each diastase acts 
only on certain chemical bodies and in general on those with whom they have 
a constitutional analogy. The diastases act proportionately to the time and 
so much less as the distance is greater. It is certain that if the reactions be- 
come slower, then stop, it is caused by the accumulation of formed products 
on determined points of the mass. This explains why it is indispensable to 
stir the mass to re-establish the equilibrium and to permit the reaction to pro- 
ceed. 

Organized ferments — The organized ferments act, contrarily to the 
diastases, progressively and relatively slowly at the start. They provoke 
either direct products, or successive transformations, the term of which is 
often very hard to define, like in the putrefactions; it is precisely the case of 
the manure. From a chemical view, the fermentations are classed by Heninger 
according to the nature of the reaction: 

1, Fermentation by hydration: the type is the fermentation of the urea 

1 Prof. P. C, in "La Culture des Champignons Comestibles," p. 83. 



FERMENTS 71 



which, by fixing the water, becomes carbonate of ammonia under the influence 
of the micrococcus uvese. 2, Fermentation by division, such as the lactic 
fermentation and the alcohoHc fermentation, acting on the sugar. 3, Ferment- 
ation by reductions, such as the butyric fermentation. 4.. Fermentation by 
oxydition, such as the acetic fermentation. 

The fermentations by the diastases which are included in the classification 
of Berthelot do not make part of the above classification which comprises 
only the fermentations due to the organized ferments. 

It is to Pasteur that we owe the first methods of study of the fermentations 
and most of the apparatuses necessary to that end. Those studies are ex- 
ceedingly delicate and it is very difficult to draw neat conclusions from them; 
nevertheless, distinguished scientists have undertaken that arduous task and 
it is to them that we owe the nicest discoveries, of which it has been possible 
to draw applications in the industry, medicine and hygiene. In a general 
way, we may say that the physical or chemical agents have a great influence on 
the ferments. Heat produces very different effects. Some ferments resist 
to a temperature of 248° F., others, on the contrary, are killed at 122° or 140°. 
Ferments resist much better when they are dry than in a moist medium, in 
particular the spores of the spore-bearing species; for instance the bacilli re- 
sist to very high temperatures and often for a very long time. The most 
favorable temperatures to the development of ferments is found between 59° 
and 1 13° F. For what concerns the cold we may say that the ferments resist 
it much better than the heat ; congelation sometimes suspends their develop- 
ment, but does not kill them. 

Pressure is without action or nearly so. Light and electricity destroy the 
ferments, but these two agents exert that noxious effect rather on account of 
the bodies to which they give rise than by their own actions. 

So then the ferments have great lasting power. They are able to remain a 
very long time while unutilized without dying or losing their power; it is 
the spore-bearing kind that lasts the longest, for instance the bacilli are much 
more resistant that the micrococci, these last mentioned being not spore-bear- 
ing. 

Acidity is unfavorable to the preservation and to the development of fer- 
ments; many withstand well the alkalinity. This point is very important in 
the fermentation of manures. Acetic acid, for instance, is one of the most fatal 
and of the least tolerated; now there is acetic acid produced in the decompo- 
sition of the woods ; the presence of ligneous matter in the manu re is therefore un- 
favorable. Butyric acid is also fatal. Butyric acid is produced in manures 
which are poorly stirred. However, it has been observed that the ferments 
are susceptible of becoming acclimatized to the presence of acids, like also to 
that of antiseptics. This property has no utility in our case, it is rather in- 
teresting for laboratory preparations and some industrial operations. It 
must be noticed that certain bodies, the oxygen, for instance, act as a power- 
ful antiseptic on certain ferm.entations and prevent their development. This 
is what occurs for the fermentations called anaerobic fermentations. 

In the preparation of the manure for the mushroom culture, the aerobic fer- 
mentations seem to play the greatest part; it is thus indispensable to well 
aerate the manure which condition is realized by stirring and turning it in one 
instance and by sprinkling it in another instance. The water in penetrating 
the heap dissolves a part of the bodies present, in particular the carbonic 
acid that is released; it thus calls for air in the interior. 

We have said that the organized ferments were bodies growing in volume 
and reproducing their kind; meaning that they take up food. They do not all 
take up food in the same manner, and do not attack the same bodies; in gen- 
eral they need at the same time an organic element of one or several mineral 
elements. 

On the manure we find several organic elements suitable to the ferments. 
The urea of the animal dejections, the cellulose of the straw litter; the starch, 
the sugar or glucose, etc. A certain ferment attacks each one of these bodies 
and a chemical reaction takes place. 



72 TECH1?I 



TECHNICAL STUDIES 



Thus the micrococcus ureae or ammoneous ferment, discovered and studied 
by Van Tieghem, as its name indicates, acts on the urea contained in the 
urine of the herbivorous animals and transforms it into carbonate of am- 
monia. The reaction is noted chemically. 

CH4 No O+2H2 0=C03 N2 Hs 
urea carbonate of ammo-nia 

The excess of ammonia is released and that is why the manure, in fermenting, 
diffuses the ammonia odor, that disappears onty when the urea has been trans- 
formed. 

That ferment is easily developed in an alkaline medium, like the urine of the 
herbivorous animals which contains carbonate of ammonia and of potash. 
It is to be noted that the carbonates so produced attack the straw and give an 
important reaction activated by the heat. It is to the alkaline carbonates that 
is due the dissolution of the nitrous matter, of the soluble cellulose, to leave 
only the insoluble vasculose. 

Thus this last work, the attacking of the cellulose, is undertaken at the same 
time and favored by the formenic ferment; there is oxydation of the cellulose 
and release of carbonic acid and of formene or swamp gas; the chemical for- 
mula is 

Ce Hio 05+H20=3CH4 +3CO2 
cellulose formene carbonic acid 

The operation takes place in an alkaline medium and the carbonic acid fixes 
the ammonia and the potash. This action is facilitated by the sprinkling 
and the temperature of the reaction. It is to be noted, however, that the for- 
menic ferment does not necessarily require air. 

It is a short, plump bacillus, which requires the oxygen of the air not for it- 
self, but to revive its spores and for its multiplication. If it can transform the 
cellulose without aeration, it requires aeration and sprinkling to perpetuate its 
action and it is thus favored by the manipulations of the manure heap. 

The transformation of the cellulose and the transformation of the urine 
constitute the two principal important phenomena which take place in the 
manure heap. 

It is Messrs. Deherain and Magneux who have especially studied the for- 
menic ferment. It is also to them that we owe the study of the butyric fer- 
ment which acts in the transformation of the manure by attacking the fatty 
matters. 

Other ferments attack the sugar or glucose; the starch and the gums to 
give off hydrogen and carbonic acid. There is oxidation of those hydrates of 
carbon that are found in the straw and that do not exist any more in the fin- 
ished manure. 

That slow combustion takes its energy from the free oxygen, it raises the 
temperature of the heap and favors at the same time the reactions and the 
alkaline liquid introduced in the manure by the urine of the animals; that is 
what takes place in the upper part of the heap when the temperature attains 
and goes beyond 140°. Sheltered from the oxygen the combustion goes on 
by the activity of other ferments such as the formenic ferment, but in that 
case it is only an internal combustion, the combustible elements of which are 
taken from the cellulose and the temperature is lower. That is what takes 
place in the bottom of the heap. 

There is also a ferment, which action is very important; it is an aerobic fer- 
ment, the micrococcus nitrificans. It is to Messrs. Schloesing and Muntz that 
we are especially indebted for the study of that ferment. Its function is the 
transformation of a part of the nitrogen of the organic matters into nitrates. 
There is fixation of the oxygen of the air to form nitric acid which forms a 
chemical combination with the ammonia, the soda and especially the potash 
found in the organic detritus; that is what is commonly called salpetration. 
This formation of nitrate of potash has been modified by artificial means, 
by adding lime to the organic matters present, we form nitrates of lime of a 
more fixed nature, that is to say, that they are not so easily dissolved as the 
nitrates of potash, but are nevertheless assimilable by plants for food. Every 



INJURIOUS INSECTS 



73 



one knows that the nitrates have the greatest influence on the development of 
plants. 

It is thus probable that they have an influence on the development of mush- 
rooms and it is doubtless for that reason that long ago the influence of salt- 
peter on walls, the addition of plaster to manure, etc., has been recognized by- 
some mushroom growers to give good results. 

In conclusion, it is well to call attention once more to the absolute ne- 
cessity of bringing modifications to the medium in which fermentations or 
chemical reactions take place. We must never forget that these fermenta- 
tions or chemical reactions give rise to residuary products, the presence of 
which is in opposition with the good continuation and with the development 
of the fermentations and principal reactions. It is only by stirring, sprinkling, 
aerating, heating or cooling the mass that we can come to transform it in a 
regular shape; to render it homogeneous. That is the chief end in working 
the manure for the production of the special state of humus favorable to the 
mushroom culture. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MUSHROOMS' 

Cultivated mushrooms, especially during vi^ann weather, are at- 
tacked by several species of insect pests which frequently destroy 
an entire crop, or so curtail the production as to make the industry 
unprofitable. Although this injury is at 
times serious, little interest has been 
taken by entomologists in the matter 
of its control, so that there is practi- 
cally no available economic literature 
on the subject. This circular is of 
a preliminary nature, as the investi- 
gation of all insects injurious to mush- 
rooms may not be completed for some 
time. 

The insects which usually attack 
cultivated mushrooms, and those of 
which complaints are most frequently 
made, may be di\-ided roughly into 
four classes, namely, mushroom tnag- 
gots, mites, springtails, and sowbugs. 
Of these the maggots are the most 
generally injurious, the mites follow in 
order of importance, owing to the difficulty with which their eradi- 
cation is accomplished, and then come springtails and sowbugs in 
the order named. 




Fig. 1. — A mushroom fly, Ajjhi- 
ocliata (ilhidiJialtcris: Male. 
Much enhirged. (Original.) 



MUSHROOM MAGGOTS 

(Sciara multiseta Felt et al. 



The injurious forms commonly known as "mushroom maggots" 
are small, whitish or yellowish-white maggots usually having black 
heads. They are the young of certain small flies or "gnats," two- 

1 By C. H. PoPENOE, Entomological Assistant, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



74 TECHNfi 



TECHNICAL STUDIES 



winged and mostly black in color, of several species belonging to 
the families Mycetophilidffi and Phoridse, and to the genera Sciara 
and Aphiochasta. Of these the species belonging to the genus 
Sciara are by far the most common and injurious of mushroom 
pests. They are minute in size, measuring about three thirty- 
seconds of an inch in length and about one-eighth inch in spread 
of wings. They are smoky or dusty black in color. The species 
attracting most attention as pests are Sciara multiseta Felt and 
Sciara agraria Felt. Both species are, like the other mushroom 
gnats, rapid and prohfic breeders, especially during warm weather, 
frequently occurring in mushroom houses so abundantly as to 
darken the windows. They may be readily confused,' however, 
with gnats of the same genus which breed in manure or in green- 
house soil, and determinations should always be made by a special- 
ist. 

Another cornrnonspecies,, AphiochcBta albidihalterisFeltifig.l) , 
superficially resembles the preceding, and has much the same habits, 
but as yet has not appeared to cause so much damage as have the 
species before mentioned. 

The life history of one of the mushroom maggots is about as 
follows: The eggs, of which each female is capable of laying nearly 
1,000, are generally deposited at the juncture of the stem and cap 
of the mushroom, or in the manure or soil at its base. In a warm 
temperature they may hatch within three days, but in colder 
weather this time may be considerably extended. Upon hatching 
the larva; bore at once into the stem or cap of the mushroom, 
soon riddling the cap, and causing the breaking down of the mush- 
room in a short time. On account of the perishable nature of 
their host they pass through their transformations quickly, the 
larvae feeding for from 7 to 10 days, by which time the entire cap 
is destroyed. The larvae then enter the ground, each spinning a 
slight silken cocoon just beneath the surface, and pupating. The 
pupa stage lasts from four to seven days, after which the insects 
emerge as adults, soon afterwards pairing and ovipositing for the 
next generation. Owing to the immense number of eggs deposited 
and to the short life cycle the rapidity of their increase is remark- 
able, so that the presence of only a few insects in the mushroom 
house at the beginning of the season may result in the presence of 
millions after the beginning of warm weather, thus efifectually 
preventing the cultivation of mushrooms. 

CONTROL 

It is evident that in the control of the mushroom maggots meas- 
ures should be undertaken early in the season for their elimina- 
tion from the mushroom house and precautions observed against 
their subseqvtent entrance. These should begin with the construc- 
tion of the house or cellar. The building should be so constructed 
as to permit of effective fumigation and should be fitted with 
tight screens of fine wire gauze, suitable to prevent the ingress of 



INJURIOUS INSECTS 



75 



the fungus gnats. The gnats may also be brought into the house 
through the agency of the manure used in the compost beds, so 
that it is well to disinfect or sterilize this substance by means of 
steam. This may be accomplished by placing the manure or soil 
in vats or boxes, through which steam pipes, perforated to allow 
the escape of the steam into the boxes, are conducted. (See fig. 2.) 
The manure should be heated to a temperature of 150° F., which 
will destroy all animal life occurring therein without injury to 
its capacity for producing mushrooms. Fumigation with bisulphid 
of carbon just previous to planting the mushrooms is also pro- 
ductive of good results in destroying maggots in the compost. 
The bisulphid should be used at a strength of 2 to 4 pounds to 
1,000 cubic 



feet of space 
and should be 
evaporated in 
shallow pans 
placed in the 
highest part of 
the house. It 
is very inflam- 
m a b 1 e and 
even explosive 
when brought 
into contact 




'li;. L'.— Sti.';uiui!; 



box, or sterilizor, for the treatment of coin- 
l)ost. (Original.) 



with fire or sparks, so that care should be used to avoid bringing 
any fire into the building during the process of fumigation. 

One of the best methods for the destruction of the adults or 
flies in their occurrence in mushroom houses is fumigation with 
tobacco or nicotine fumigants such as are used in greenhouses. 
These should be used in accordance with the directions indicated 
on the package for a medium or heavy fumigation.^ Used in this 
manner, and applied once a week during the bearing season of 
the mushroom bed, this method has been so successful in reducing 
the number of flies that very little damage, if any, resulted from 
the larvae. 

Fumigation with pyrethrum or dusting the powder over the 
beds is also effective against the mushroom maggots if. taken in 
time, but tobacco fimiigation may be considered standard for this 
use. 

THE MUSHROOM MITE 

(Tyro^lyphus lintneri Osb.) 

The mushroom mite {Tyroglyphus lintneri Osb. Fig. 3) is a 
minute, soft-bodied mite, smooth skinned, and white or whitish 
in color. It is closely allied to the conTmon cheese mite ( Tyroilyphus 
siro L.) and resembles that species in appearance. It is, if anything, 

IThe proportion of nicotine in the several preparations varies to such an extent that no 
standard dose has yet been formulated. 



76 



TECHNICAL STUDIES 



more prolific than the cheese mite, becoming at times so abun dant 
in mushroom beds as to cover the surface of the compost, and when 
present in such numbers is extremely destructive, feeding upon the 
mushrooms in all stages and penetrating the beds and destroying 

the mycelium. Indeed, in 
one case observed by Mr. 
August Busck, of this bu- 
reau, the mycelium was 
destroyed as fast as it 
grew from the spawn. 

This species is undoubted- 
ly the cause in many cases 
of the failure of the spawn 
to grow, which is likely to 
be attributed to poor or 
weak spawn, or to defective 
cultural conditions. The 
minute size of the mites 
causes their presence to be 
little suspected, and the 
failure of the spawn to 
produce mycelium is not 
understood. Even under 
conditions favorable to the 
growth of the mycelium it 
is possible for the mites to 
increase to such an extent 
that the entire bed may be 
killed out. 
\ ^ Besides the injury to the 

Fig. 3.— The mushroom mite (Tyroglyphus myCclium, mushrOOm mitCS 

untncri). Highly magnified. (Prom causc damage to the fruit- 
ing bodies by eating into 
them, distorting or destroying the young growth. In the more 
mature mushrooms the mites may be found clustered in groups 
consisting of individuals of many sizes, usually hidden in the folds 
between the gills, where they burrow into the tissue and rapidly 
break down the caps. 

No direct observations bearing on the life history of this species 
have been made, but judging from that of related species it is 
about as follows: The eggs, which are large in proportion to the 
size of the mites, are laid in or about the mycelium of the mush- 
room, or on the young or developing caps. They hatch in a short 
time into the characteristic six -legged young, which rapidly mature 
to adults similar to the one in figure 3. The time from the de- 
positation of the egg to the maturity of the mite, has not, to the 
writer's knowledge, been accurately worked out, but undoubtedly 
occupies only a few days. It is on this account that the mite is 
able to inciease so rapidly, apparently as if by magic, and thus 




INJURIOUS INSECTS 77 



give rise to the theory of spontaneous generation sometimes ad- 
vanced to explain this condition. 

Under certain conditions the hypopus or migratory stage is 
produced. This stage, according to Banks/ is peculiar to the fam- 
ily Tyroglyphidee, to which this mite belongs, and is quite remark- 
able. The mite develops a hard, chitinous covering, has no mouth- 
parts, and is provided with short legs insufficient for walking. 
On the ventral surface of the body is an area provided with suck- 
ing disks, by means of which the hypopus attaches itself to an 
insect and is so transported to suitable breeding grounds in other 
localities. On arrival at a suitable breeding place the mite detaches 
itself from its insect host, molts, and soon becomes adult. During 
the hypopus stage the mite takes no food and causes no injury to 
the insect which carries it. This peculiar stage is the natural 
means for the distribution of the mite to new localities, and is in 
many cases responsible for its appearance in localities far from 
previously infested beds. 

In addition to the way mentioned above, the mite may obtain 
access to mushroom houses in infested compost or in spawn from 
infested houses. However, the greater part of the infestation 
probably takes place through the agency of the small flies which 
frequent mushroom houses and which carry the hypopus stage 
of the mite from one house to another. 

REMEDIES 

Little can be recommended for the control of the mushroom 
mite after it has once become established in a house. Owing to the 
absence of breathing pores it is little affected by the fumigants 
suitable for the control of the other mushroom pests, while appli- 
cations of sulphur, tobacco dust, and other suitable insecticides to the 
beds seem only to prove slightly inconvenient to the mite. It_^is 
one of the most stubborn pests with which we have to deal in 
mushroom culture, and may be brought into the house in almost 
any manure that is used for the bed. When in the hypopus stage 
it is capable of prolonged suspension of vitality and is likely to 
remain in the house for an unlimited time without death. The 
only measures, therefore, that may be considered are those of 
prevention. 

When a house becomes infected, all compost should be gathered 
with the utmost care, removed to the outside, and thoroughly dis- 
infected by drenching with boiling water, or it may be hauled to a 
distance and spread upon the ground as fertilizer, or it may be 
destroyed by burning. The ground occupied by the mushroom 
beds should be thoroughly scalded, and the woodwork of the mush- 
room house treated to a wash of creosote or crude carbolic acid, 
either of which is distasteful to the mites. After complete dis- 
infection has been accomplished the house should be screened, to 

iProc. U. S. Nat. Mush., vol. 28, p. 79, 1904. 



78 TECHNICAL STUDIES 




guard against subsequent introduction of the pest by means of 
flies. All manure forming the beds should be steamed, according 
to the directions under the head of mushroom maggots. Care should 
be used to ptu^chase spawn only from uninfested houses. With these 
precautions it is unlikely that trouble will be experienced from the 
attacks of the mushroom mite. Close watch shoiild be kept, how- 
ever, for any signs of the presence of the mites in the beds, and the 
compost destroyed upon their first appearance, as it is impossible 
to secure good results with mushrooms when infested by these 
mites. All applications of sufficient strength to 
destroy the mites are likewise injiurious to the 
vi^^^^ mushrooms, and it is futile to attempt to con- 
trol by any artificial means, once the mush- 
room bed becomes infested, as the mites are 
buried so deeply in the compost that no in- 
secticide will reach them. 

A predaceous mite belonging to the Gama- 
sidse frequently occurs in beds infested by the 
mushroom mite, feeding upon the latter, and 
at times becoming so numerous as entirely to 
Fig. 4.-A common in- • ^ ^^^ ^^ie pest. The gamasid may be known 

jurious spnngtail. ^ '^. , ^, i 9, -^ 

Achoreutes arma- by its longer legs and Its manner or runmng 
turn. Mucb en- swiftly over the compost or the mushrooms, 
lai-fe'cd. (Original.) The writer has seen cases where the gamasid 
has occurred in such abundance as greatly to 
outnumber its host. This predaceous enemy does not feed on the 
mushrooms after the destruction of the mites, but seeks other feed- 
ing grounds, or dies by starvation. 

SPRINGTAILS 

{Achoreutes arrnaturn Nicolet et al.) 

At times the surface of a mushroom bed becomes alive with 
minute brown or black insects, which, when disturbed, leap about 
like fleas in an extremely erratic manner. These are known as 
springtails, since the springing is perfonned by the aid of two short 
bristles situated on the anal segment of the abdomen. These in- 
sects (Achoreutes arjnatum see fig. 4) are present in almost all 
manure, where they feed on the decaying vegetation present, but 
on occasion they may become quite injurious in mushroom houses. 
A correspondent in St. Louis, Mo., reported that in one of his 
mushroom houses a bed 150 feet in length had been completely 
destroyed by these pests, which attacked the mushrooms as fast 
as they appeared, honeycombing them and rendering them unfit 
for use. The method of attack of this insect is to feed upon the 
fruiting bodies of the mushrooms, destroying both the gills and the 
cap. Hundreds may be found clustered upon a single mushroom 
and eating large cavities in the gills. It appears to be a habit of 
these insects to congregate in large numbers on caps which have 



INJURIOUS INSECTS 79 



been slightly injured, in which case they rapidly destroy mushrooms 
which would be readily salable if the injury were not continued. 
When they occur in large numbers they are likely to attack even 
the perfect mushrooms, in aggravated cases destroying whole 
beds. 

Insects of this group pass through no larval transformation, the 
form of the newly hatched yotmg being similiar to that of the adult. 
They are thus likely to be injurious in the same manner through- 
out their life history. 

REMEDIES 

The remedial measures applicable to the control of springtails 
are to a large extent preventive, as these insects are somewhat 
difficult to control when once established in a mushroom bed. 
They are quite resistant to tobacco powders, but applications of 
buhach or pyrethrum to the beds are productive of some good. 
As they usually congregate near the surface of the beds, fumigation 
with hydrocyanic-acid gas, according to the directions given in 
Circular 37 of this bureau, will prove effective in reducing their 
numbers. The cyanid should be used at a strength of from 3 to 6 
ounces to each 1,000 cubic feet of air space, which will not prove 
injurious to the mycelium. 

By way of prevention, steaming all manure, as previously sug- 
gested for other species, will destroy springtails equally well. 
Where possible, it is better to grow the mushrooms at a teinper- 
atiire of about 55° F., than higher, as at low temperatures the 
springtails breed much less quickly. Dusting the tops of the beds 
with powdered lime is also said to discourage attack by springtails. 

SOWBUGS 

{Armadillidimn spp. and Porcellio spp.) 

Considerable injury is often accomplished to mushroom beds 
through the attacks of oval, grayish, or slate-colored creatures bear- 
ing seven pairs of legs. These creatures are not true insects, al- 
though known variously by the terms "wood lice," sowbugs and 
"pillbugs." Two species, the greenhouse pillbug {Armadillidium 
vul^are Latreille) and the dooryard sowbug (Porcellio IcBvis 
Koch) are illustrated in figures 5, 6, and 7. 

Sowbugs live in damp, daik places, such as beneath boards, in 
cellars, and in the cracks of sidewalks. When disturbed many 
species roll up to form a ball, lying quite still until the danger is 
past. (See fig. 5.) During the night they issue from their hid- 
ing places to feed upon decaying vegetable matter, molds, and 
other material present in damp soils, although at times the roots 
of plants and even the green leaves are not eschewed. 

The young are carried about in a pouch, fomied by several 



80 



TECHNI(*^L STUDIES 




modified anal plates on the abdomen of the female, until able to 
shift for themselves. When released by the 
female the young are similiar in appearance 
to the adults, although much smaller, and 
are likewise capable of damage. . There is 
probably only one generation annually, the 
young making their appearance in the 
spring and requiring one summer to reach 
maturity. 

The destruction occasioned by sow- 
bugs is due to their attacks on the caps 
or fruiting bodies of the mushrooms. 
These they attack while quite small, destroy- 
ing them or injuring their appearance. 

They do not, as a rule, attack the 
mycelium, but eat holes in the young 
"buttons," which, on the completion of the 
growth, become much larger and disfigure 
the product. 

Sowbugs are, more frequenth^ than at 
first might be thought, carried into the 
mushroom house in compost which has been 
allowed to stand outside. The heat of the 
manure is reUshed by them, and they 
collect in numbers, remaining there through- 
out the growth of the spawn, but becoming 
injurious with the first growth of the 
mushrooms. The writer has seen sowbugs 
collected in manure piles to such an extent 
that numbers aggregating a pint or more in 
quantity might have 
been collected from a shovelful of material. 



Fk;. 5 — TliP aiopnhouse 
pillbu;; (.1 ( inailillidium 
niUjnic) extended. 
Much enlarged. (Orig- 
inal.) 




Fig. 6. — The greenhouse 
pillbug (Armv'liUUUitm 
vulgarc) contracted. 

Much enlarged. (Orig- 
inal.) 




REMEDIES 

Where the mushroom house is small in 
extent it is possible materially to reduce the 
numbers of sowbugs by means of hand pick- 
ing. The house may be visited at night, 
when, by the aid of a lantern, numbers of sow- 
bugs may be seen crawling about on the earth- 
em casing of the beds and upon the boards 
Fig. 7.— Dooryard sowhug and supports of the bcnchcs. These may 
(PorccUio zcciis). Much be destroyed with a small wooden paddle. 

It is also possible to secure good results by 
pouring hot water along the cracks in the boards and in other places 
where the "bugs" may be concealed by day. This is effective in 
small establishments, but is somewhat difficult of application in 



STAINS 81 

large houses. In such a case, fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas 
is an effective remedy. Treatment with sulphur dioxid is also 
effective, but this remedy should be applied after the mushroom 
crop has been harvested and the compost has been removed. 

Another method is to cut small pieces of raw potato, plastering 
the wet surface with Paris green, and laying them about on the 
beds of the localities affected by the sowbugs. This method is 
frequently successful in entirely ridding houses of this pest. 

CRICKETS 

Among other injurious fomis which at times attack mushrooms, 
certain crickets are reported as eating into the caps of the mush- 
rooms. On the Pacific coast a species known scientifically as 
Ceuthophilus pacificus Thom. has been reported as causing ex- 
tensive injury to cultivated mushroom beds. 

The remedies for crickets in their injurious occurrence are the 
same as those recommended for sowbugs in a previous section of 
this circular. Potatoes and carrots may be minced before applying 
the Paris green, in order to secure a somewhat thicker coat. 

GENERAL SUMMARY 

In the consti-uction of mushroom houses care should be taken 
to make the building as tight as possible and with few outlets. 
If windows are necessary they should be small and should be screen- 
ed with fine wire gauze, which forms an excellent prevention 
against the entrance of both maggots and mites, as previously 
mentioned. If possible, all compost should be steamed before being 
placed in the house and the temperature should be kept below 
55° F., as all insects are more or less dormant at this temperature, 
and their otherwise rapid multiplication is thereby greatly checked, 
reducing infestation to a minimum. If these recommendations are 
carefully followed there should be little necessity for the radical 
measures of fumigation or destruction of the beds. 

STAINS ' 

We know that most of the serious contagious diseases attacking 
the animals (tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid fever, etc.) are produced 
by bacteria, commohly called microbes. 

Among the vegetables, on the contrary, the agents of the serious 
diseases are more frequently molds, that is to say very small 
filamentous fungi, feeding at the expense of the plant they attack; 
for instance: the wheat rust, the carbuncle and the decay of the 
cereals, the oidiumand the mildew of the vine. The cultivated 
mushroom does not escape the common law; like the other vege- 
tables, it is chiefly attacked by molds, of which we have already 

1 L. Matruchot, in "La Culture des Champignons Comestibles," pp. 371 and 402. 



82 TECHltlCAL STUDIES 



studied many (agents of the mold, of the plaster mold, of the vert- 
de-gris, etc.) 

But if the vegetables are attacked by molds, oftener than the 
animals, they also have their microbian or bacterial diseases, the 
agent of which is a bacterium. Thus, certain tumors of the pines 
are due to an invasion of bacteria, attacking and deforming the 
ligneous tissues of these trees. 

The cultivated mushroom has also its bacterial disease; it is 
called the stain. 

Not having been known as it were at all times, as the mole has 
been (for the reason that it causes much smaller damage) the stain 
has been known by the mushroom growers for over thirty years; 
but it is at a relatively recent date that it has for the first time 
been made the object of a scientific study. It is M. Costantin 
who first has made that study and has demonstrated that it is 
a case of bacterial infection. To the documents that this study has 
furnished, we will add a few personal observations and some tech- 
nical advice. 

CHARACTER OF THE DISEASE 

External character — The stain owes its name to a sufificiently 
characteristic peculiarity, noticed on the diseased mushroom 
while .still on the mushroom bed; it exudes at the surface of the 
stem or of the cap driplets of a colorless or yellowish grey liquid 
which darkens in time. The driplets beading the surface of the 
mushroom are of various sizes; at first very small, each one of 
them grows and may attain the size of a pea. It is from these 
driplets or drops that the disease takes its name. These water 
driplets being due to an active perspiration of the mushroom, 
are no longer noticed on caps which have been picked for a cer- 
tain length of tiine. 

Under those conditions, to recognize the disease, we must re- 
sort to the other characteristics. They consist at first of stains 
very apparent externally, of a clear shade, greenish or even bright 
yellow at the beginning, then of a brown or even black color at 
the end. There is, moreover, a peculiar viscosity of the cap at the 
place of the stains. Finally the stained mushroom, when slightly 
squeezed between the fingers, oozes a drop of liquid. The shape of 
the stains produced by the disease is more or less variable. They 
are most frequently rounded or lobe shaped stains, spreading as 
far as to cover several square centimeters in surface; sometimes 
the spot developing unevenly in various directions takes arborized 
shapes. 

In no case is there a defomiation of the mushroom, as is seen so 
frequently in the mole ; in a stained mushroom the tissue becomes 
hard, like swollen with water, but it continues to develop without 
becoming atrophied, and it is not rare to observe very pretty 
mushroom caps, largely developed and blossomed, that are stained 
in spots. 

To sum up, the mushroom grower will easily detect the "stain" 



STAINS 83 

in the mushroom on the beds through the exudations or "tears" 
that it produces; if this character passes unnoticed, the attention 
of the practitioner will be called by the peculiar spots presented 
by the diseased mushrooms and also by the infectious odor which 
is soon emitted. 

Internal character — A cut made with the knife in the diseased 
region furnishes also very precise indications for the diagnosis of 
the disease. Under the green or brown stained epidermis, we dis- 
tinguish a translucid zone of a wate --green color, contrasting neatly 
with the heavy white color of the tissue of the healthy mushroom. 
The line separating the greenish zone of the white tissue is a sinuous 
irregular line ; it can extend through the cap as far as to penetrate 
the whole thickness of it and reach the gills ; in the stem it can reach 
a depth of two centimeters. 

It seems that the production of the greenish and aqueous zone 
is the first symptom of the disease. While this zone increases in 
surface and in depth, the brown and black pigmentation appears; 
the darkened epidermis differentiates itself neatly from the sub- 
jacent tissue and separates from it. 

The stem and cap can also be attacked; however, it is generall}^ 
through the cap that the attack commences. 

We had occasion to observe a case where the disease had pene- 
trated the cap, the contagion spread on the stem through exuda- 
tion driplets carried down by gravity; from the point of inocula- 
tion the evil has gradually reached the base of the stem. The 
specimen presenting these peculiarities was of a large size and 
had evidently taken many days to complete its evolution, which 
fact had permitted the disease to gradually reach the base of the 
mushroom. 

The professional mushroom growers can discover the stain at the 
first sjonptoms. The slightly sticky cap has peculiar shades; 
a light yellowish tint, very small isolated dark spots are sufficient 
to detect the evil at its first appearance. Placed aside and pre- 
served under bell glass at the ordinary temperature, those 
specimens, the tissue of which seems healthy and noi-mal at first 
sight, soon begins to darken, and becomes covered with a thick 
glaireous coat, of a dirty grey, shghtly yellowish, at the same time 
an intense putrefaction of the tissue takes place and a nauseous 
odor is emitted. 

The stained mushrooms are not only unsalable on the market 
but a few of those inadvertently mixed with a lot of healthy mush- 
rooms are sufficient to communicate to these a disagreeable odor 
and to make this sale doubtful. Tnerefore the care taken by the 
laborer in charge of the picking to avoid mixing stained mushrooms 
with the healthy crop is easily explained. 

M. Costantin first detected that a bacterium was the agent of 
the disease. Having secured a few sticky and stained mushrooms 
at the time they came out of the mushroom cave, he placed them 
under glass bells in the laboratory; he observed the sticky part 



84 TECHl^CAL STUDIES 



grow and transform itself into a thick greyish glairy mass; that 
glairy mass is made out of bacteria. From the stait of the evil, 
we can detect the presence of bacteria. If we examine under a mag- 
nifying glass a cap only beginning to show a few brown stains we 
notice at the place where those stai/is are located depressions, be- 
ing sometimes in continuity with small pockets hollowed in the 
cap, the content of which is viscous and greyish. The bacteria live 
there also in large quantities. 

Finally, even in the parts of the cap or of the stem not yet sticky 
or glairy but already attacked, we can put in evidence the piesence 
of the bacteria by taking cultures of the same. The simplest pro- 
cess consists in breaking the mushroom at the place where the stain 
occurs, so as to expose the attacked tissue; then by means of a 
platinum wire previously sterilized to take a small part of the dis- 
eased tissue or simply a little liquid forced out of the wound by a 
slight pressure, and to spread the same on ciilture media suitable 
to the development of bacteria, such as gelatinous broths. If the 
region where the inoculation was taken contains bacteria, the 
correspondent culture will in a few days develop a distinct bac- 
terial colony; in the contrary case the culture will remain sterile. 

This method has made it possible to determine thac the brown 
parts of the surface of the cap contain bacteria; in more deeply lo- 
cated regions of the same color, these bacteria become scarcer and 
may be absent. Finally the greenish translucid parts do not con- 
tain bacteria at the beginning. As to the white parts of the tissue 
of the stem or of the cap, they are always devoid of it. 

We must conclude therefrom that this bacterial disease is of 
superficial origin; it spreads from the exterior to the interior, 
through the encroachment on the tissue of the bacteria coming 
from the outside 

There is a curious fact. The bacteria developing in the body of 
the mushroom secrete liquids, diffusing gradually in the mass and 
render it translucid and greenish-like. But as the diffusion of the 
liquid takes place more rapidly than the penetration of the bacteria, 
the zone invaded by the micro-organisms is surrounded and seems 
preceded by a clear translucid zone. 

The products preceded by the bacteria are diastases or diges- 
tive ferments transforming the opaque membranes of the tissue 
into a semi-transparent substance ; at the same time they secrete 
a greenish fluorescent-like coloring matter fixing itself on the tissue, 
and giving it the so characteristic aspect that we have described. 

The existence of the three successive zones, from the exterior 
toward the interior are thus explained; 1, the brownish or daik 
zone, generally sticky, where the bacteria swarm; 2, the slightly 
colored zone, not sticky, where the bacterja are less abundant; 
3, the green translucid zone, not yet invaded by the bacteria, but 
which has already been reached by their secretions. 

The agent of the "stain" is a short bacillus, shaped like a small 
stick rounded at both ends, of one-half of a thousandth of a milli- 
meter wide and of one to two thousandths of a millimeter long. 



STAINS 85 

This bacterium is very easily cultivated on all the usual media of 
the laboratories; it produces gelatinous colonies recalling the sticky 
masses observed on the diseased mushrooms ; and on certain sub- 
strata ^gelatinous broth, potatoes) it diffuses a greenish secretion 
of the same shade as that which characterizes the "stain" in nature. 

We may ask to what is due the phenomenon of the formation of 
"drops" on the surface of the attacked parts of the stem or of the 
cap. M. Costantin supposes that the sticky gelatinous veil 
covering the cap more or less completely, must modify the per- 
spiration of the mushroom, ordinarily so active; the water which 
continues to flow into the cap fills all the spaces and provokes a 
violent disturbance of the cells. When all the cavities are filled, 
liquid drops appear on the surface of the mushroom. It would be 
a phenomenon similiar to that produced in the evening for the 
green plants when the perspiration diminishes abruptly in conse- 
quence of the disappearance of the light. 

There have been many remedies suggested against the "stain" 
for the cultivated mushroom. Butthe disease not seeming to pre- 
sent a considerable economic importance, compared for instance 
to that of the mole, no extended experiments have been attempted 
in practice. 

Theie seems to be no doubt that the bacterial agent of the disease 
arises from the manure; when the latter is too green and poorly 
worked it contains swarms of bacteria, and there are great chances 
that those of the "stain" may attack the stem of the mushrooms. 

In particular it is not a rare case to observe the "stain" in mush- 
room beds that the market gardeners build in the open air in the 
winter; the necessity arising to obtain a suitable temperature, to 
build the beds with incompletely fennented manure, is a propitious 
condition to the development of these bacteria. * * The best pre- 
ventive measures consist in using only well fermented manure. * * 
When the disease has once broken out on a mushroom bed there is 
no remedy, since the cause of the evil resides in the manure under 
the surfacing. Nevertheless, it would be well to avoid the spreading 
of the disease to the bordering beds as the "stain" drops in fall- 
ing on the surface earth constitute as many centers of infection. 
All the moist stains so formed on the earth surface of the beds 
should be treated with lime or lysol, and the stained mushrooms 
should be removed from the mushroom house. 

It seems that the large varieties of the cultivated inushroom are 
more subject to the "stain" than the medium or small varieties. 
This is undoubtedly an appearance only, and is due to the fact that as 
a large mushroom takes a longer time to evolve, the disease has 
ample time to develop and to cause greater damage. 



86 



TECHNICAL STUDIES 



AMANITA ^ 

The cap and stem are readily separated from each other, and the 
latter bears a ring. At the base of the stem is a cup or volva, which, 
with the ring, distinguishes this genus from Lepiota and Amanitop- 
sis;'that is, Amanita has both ring and volva, Lepiota only the 
ring, and Amanitopsis only the volva. The volva breaks into 
fragments and disappears in a few species of Amanita, and 
only the young plants can then be told with certainty from Lepiota. 
Amanita contains practically all the deadly poisonous species of 
the gill fungi. Although several species are edible, in particular, 
Caesar's mushroom, the danger of mistaking a poisonous Amanita 
for an edible one is so great that every one should take the greatest 
pains to avoid eating any Amanita whatsoever, and Especially 
mistaking it in the young button stage for a pufifball, or in old 
age for a Lepiota. 

The ancient name for some mushroom. 




FIGURE 1. AMANITA PHALLOIDES 

Deadly! 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

1. Cap typically white, rarely yellowish 



to olive or brownish; volva with more 
or less of a free border 



i Prof. F. R. Clements in "Minnesota Plant Studies, 



A. phalloides 

Part 4, p. 6. 



AMANITA 



87 



2. Cap white or biiff-brown; volva merely 

of scales A. solitaria 

3. Cap usually bright orange, red or yel- 
low; volva sack-like or merely of scales. 

a. Volva large and sack-like, white; 

all other parts yellow or orange A. ccesarea 

b. Volva forming rings or scales on a 
bulb-like base; gills usually white or 
whitish 

(1) Whole plant dull red; flesh red- 
dening when bruised A. ruhescens 

(2) -Stem white or yellowish ; flesh not 
reddening 

(a) Cap 3-6 cm. wide; spores globose A. 

(b) Cap 8-15 cm. wide ; spores elliptic A. 



frostiana 
jnuscaria 



AMANITA PHALLOIDES, DEATH CUP, DEADLY AMANITA 

Cap 4-10 cm. wide, usually white, more rarely olive, brown oi 

\t11ow, slimy 
when moist, 
smooth or rough- 
ened with a few 
large or many 
small fragments 
of the volva ; glo- 
bose, then bell- 
shaped and fi- 
nally expanded ; 
Stem tall, stout, 
7-13 cm. by 10- 
15mni., wh ite , 
rarely dark, usu- 
ally smooth, bul- 
b o u s hollow 
above, ring 
superior, large 
drooping, white, 
volva usually 
large with a free 
border, but ex- 
tremely variable ; 
gills white and 
usually free, rare- 
ly slightly touch- 
ing ; spores glo- 
boid, 8-lOu. 
FIGURE 2. AMANITA VERNA Commonin 

Deadly! forest and wood- 

land from June to October; the deadliest of all the gill fungi, but 
easily avoided by the collector if he rejects all mushrooms with 




88 



TECHNfcAL STUDIES 



both ring and volva. This species causes the majority of the 
deaths due to eating poisonous forms. Amanita vema is probably 
only a fomi of this species; it is equally deadly. 

AMANITA SOLITARIA. SOLITARY AMANITA 

Cap large, 7-15 cm. wide, white or greyish, rarely brownish, the 
surface often covered with flaky granules or distinct scales which 
are easily rubbed off, sticking to the hands, hemispheric to plane; 
stem tall, 8-20 cm. by 8-12 mm., white, solid, bulbous, with a 
root-like extension, more or less scaly like the cap, ring torn, more 
or less appressed, volva scaly, disappearing; gills free or touching, 
white; spores elliptic, 10x7u. The name refers to its habit of grow- 
ing solitary, though this is not universal. 

Common in woodland and grassland from July to October; 

said to be edible, but it is dan- 
gerous on account of its re- 
semblance to poisonous Aman- 
itas and every one should avoid 
all risk by leaving it entirely 
alone. 

AMANITA CAESAREA. CAESAR's 
MUSHROOM 

Cap large, 7-20 cm. wide, 
reddish, orange or yellow, 
smooth but beautifully striate 
toward the margin, ovate to 
convex or expanded; stem 
10-20 cm., tall, yellow or 
orange, somewhat scaly be- 
low the ring, hollow, scarcely 
enlarged below, ring yellow 
or orange, large, collar-like, 
hanging, volva white, large 
and sack-like; gills free, yellow; 
spores elhptic, 8-lOu. The 
name probably refers to the 
large size and the beauty of 
this plant. 

Rare in open woods; easily 
mistaken for the deadly fly 
mushroom and always to be 
avoided except by the expert. 




FIGURE 3. AMANITA SOLITARIA 

Dangerous ! 



AMANITA RUBESCENS. REDDEN- 
ING AMANITA 



Cap large, 8-12 cm. wide, 
dull reddish, becoming paler in age, the surface roughened with 
many cottony grayish scales, ovoid to convex, then expanded; 



AMANITA S9 



Stem stout, 10-15 cm. tall, 20-25 mm. thick, dull reddish, reddening 
when touched or bruised, ring large, superior, white, volva show- 
ing only as a few fragments, readily disappearing from the upper part 
of the bulbous base of the stem; gills shining white, touching the 
stem with lines running down it; spores ellipsoid, 7-9u. The name 
refers to the characteristic reddening of the flesh. 

Infrequent in forest and woodland from June to October; edible 
but always to be avoided except by the expert who knows the many 
variations of our species of Amanita. 

AMANITA FROSTIANA. FROST's AMANITA 

Cap small, 3-6 cm. wide, bright yellow or orange, with wart -like 
scales or occasionally nearly smooth, margin striate, convex to 
plane; stem 5-S cm. tall, white or yellow, bulbous, stuffed, ring deli- 
cate, often disappearing, volva a delicate margin on the bulbous 
base, or consisting of a few yellowish scales; gills white or yellow- 
ish; spores globose, 8-lOu. Infrequent; poisonous. 

AMANITA MUSCARIA. FLY CAP 

Cap large, 10-15 cm. wide, bright red or orange, becoming 
yellow or even whitish in age, roughened with many thick white 
angular fragments of the volva, which often disappear in age, 
margin striate, globose to convex, more rarely expanded; stem 
stout, 8-15 cm. by 2-4 cm., white, scaly, bulbous, hol- 
low, ring large, apical, torn, volva fonning several concentric 
scaly rings on the bulb; gills free or touching, white or yellowish; 
spores elliptic, 8-10x6-8u. The name refers to the use of this fungus 
to kill flies. 

Frequent in woodland, forest or clearing from June to frost; 
deadly poisonous. 

The deadly poisonous mushrooms are all species of Amanita 
A. phalloides, A. vema and A. muscaria (figures 1, 2, 4). Each 
species contains a somewhat different poison, though they all act 
as powerful and fatal depressants upon the heart action. The 
chief antidotes are atropine and injections of salt solution. The 
effects of Amanita poisoning usually do not appear for 9 to 12 
hours, and at this time remedial measures are too often unavailing. 
In consequence, every one who collects mushrooms for food should 
spare no pains to avoid getting Amanita into his basket. This 
means that he must learn to recognize Amanita under all con- 
ditions, and that as a further safeguard, he must learn the edible 
genera and species just as he would learn so many flowers or fruits. 
Mushrooms with white gills, a ring about the stem and a volva 
at the base of the stem must always be avoided. When it shows 
these three features, an Amanita can readily be distinguished from 
all other mushrooms. The greatest danger occurs in the button 
stage, or in old age when the volva or ring has more or less com- 
pletely disappeared. Button Amanitas have been mistaken for 
puffballs, with fatal results, but this will never occur, if it is borne 



90 



TECHNICAL STUDIES 



in mind that even the button as usually found will show gills when 
cut open, a feature entirely lacking in the puff ball. Perhaps the 




FIGURE 4. AMANITA MUSCARIA 

Deadly! 

safest plan is to avoid all mushroom buttons, unless there is clear- 
cut evidence from their growth or the more mature plants along- 
side of them that they are not Amanitas. In other words, mush- 
room buttons should even less be taken on faith than the adult 
forms. As to the old forms, the best method is to become so fa- 
miliar with the marks of Amanita, as shown in figures 1-3 that 



AMANITA 91 



they will be recognized under all conditions. A^Tiile the deadly 
poisonous mushrooms are few in species and in individuals, no 
chances whatever should be taken with them. The opinion of 
one who does not know them definitely by their scientific names is 
worse than worthless; it is dangerous. The same statement ap- 
plies to the various ml es-of -thumb for detecting poisonous forms. 
These would all be laughable, if they did not often lead to fatal 
results. The change of color of the flesh, the floating or sinking 
in water, the discoloration of a silver spoon and other supposed 
tests are mere superstitions, unworthy of the slightest credence. 
Even the best cookbooks are often dangerously misleading. 



POISONOUS AND EDIBLE MUSHROOMS 

By Dr. W. G. FARLOW, Harvard University 

The difference between the common edible mushroom and the fly agaric 
and deadly agaric, which the reader can easily remember, are as follows: 

(1) The common mushroom has a pileus which is not covered with wart- 
like scales; gills which are brownish purple when mature; a nearly cyUndrical 
stalk, which is not hollow, with a nng near the middle, and without a bul- 
bous base sheathed by a membrane or by scales. 

(2) The fly agaric has a pileus marked with prominent warts; giUs always 
white; a stalk, with a large ring around the upper part, and hollow or cottony 
inside, but solid at the base, where it is bulbous and scaly. 

(3) The deadly agaric has a pileus without distinct warts; gills are al- 
ways white, and a hollow stalk, with a large ring, and a prominent bulb at the 
base, whose upper margin is membraneous or baghke. 

(4) Other minor points of difference are the diflferent places in which these 
species grow, and also the colors, which, although they vary in each case, are 
brilliant yellow or red in the fly agaric, white var^'ing to oHve in the deadly 
agaric, and white usually tinged with a little brown in the mushroom. 

(5) A word should be said as to the size and proportions of pileus and stalk 
in these three species. In the mushroom the pileus averages from 3 to 4 inches 
in breadth, and the stalk is generally shorter than the breadth of the pileus 
and comparatively stout. The pileus remains convex for a long time, and does 
not become quite flat topped until old. The substance is firm and solid. 
In the fly agaric the pileus, at first oval and convex, soon becomes flat and 
attains a breadth of 6 to 8 inches and sometimes more. The stalk has a 
length equal to or shghtly exceeding the breadth of the pileus, and is compara- 
tively slenderer than in the common mushroom, but nevertheless, rather stout. 
The substance is less firm than in the common mushroom. 

(6) The pileus of the deadly agaric is thinner than that of the common 
mushroom, and, from being rather bell-shaped when young, becomes gradu- 
ally flat-topped with the center a Httle raised. In breadth it is intermediate 
between the two preceding species. The stalk usually is longer than the 
breadth of the pileus, and the habit is slenderer than in the two preceding 
species. All three species are pleasant to the taste, which shows that one 
cannot infer that a species is not poisonous because the taste is agreeable. 
The fly agaric has scarcely any odor. The other two species have certain 
odors of their own, but they cannot be described. 



92 SPAWN AND SUPPLIES 



PART III 
SPAWN AND SUPPLIES 



PURE CULTURE SPAWN 

Reliable mushroom spawn is hard to get. Cheap and inferior 
makes are a drug on the market. The intelligent mushroom 
grower is not looking for cheap spawn ; he will have none but fresh 
and the very best — he is looking for results. The largest item 
of expense to the mushroom grower is in the prepaiation of the 
beds. This expense is the same whether he plants cheap spawn 
or a high-grade spawn. The loss sustained by a crop failure, how- 
ever, is not compensated by the insignificant saving in the price 
of the spawn. 

The pure culture method of making spawn was discovered in 
1903, and the first pure culture spawn was placed on the market 
by the American Spawn Company, being now universally known as 
"Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn." The supply at first was very 
limited, the process of manufacture involving considerable labor 
and expert knowledge. The few growers who were then able to 

EXTRACT from "The Truth about Mushrooms", a pubUcation issued by this Bureau. 
MUSHROOM SPAWN 

Much of the mushroom spawn sold by the so-called spawn dealers, experts, 
"farms," and by seedsmen, is what is known as English, virgin or mill track 
spawn. It is wild spawn, as uncertain as any wild thing must be. You could 
no more be certain of a crop with such spawn than you could with any wild 
seed. The mushrooms from such spawn, when it does produce any mushrooms 
at all, are of all sizes and range in color from deep brown to lighter shaJes, 
when, as the experienced grower knows, the pure white or cream colored mush- 
room is the mushroom for which the demand exists and for which high prices 
are secured. 

Wild English spawn is cheap, however — for the man who sells it. It is of 
so little actual value that it comes into this country classed as fertilizer, not 
as seed at all. It is so low in value that with the cost of the spawn, duty and 
freight all paid, it rarely costs the dealer or "farm" over five cents a brick, 
and then the dealers proceeds to sell it at 600 to 1,000 per cent profit. No 
wonder such spawn has made some people wonder whether after all there is 
anything in mushroom culture. 

The other kind of spawn — the kind that the big, old growers, and the 
smaller successful growers as well, use — is known as Pure Culture Spawn. 

Pure Culture Spawn as the name indicates, is the result of years of work 
on the part of the United States Department of Agriculture and certain prac- 
tical mushroom growers, and is*not wild spawn_but spawn* (mushroom seed) 



PURE CULTURE SPAWN 



93 



procure it were more than surprised at their success. This spawn 
carried the highest award, a silver medal, at the Universal Exposi- 
tion, St. Louis, 1904. It has been brought to our attention 
that many illustrations used in this book, and even the claim to 
the highest award at the Universal Exposition of St. Louis, 1904, 
have been copied for use in connection with other spawn or so- 
called "Pure Culture Spawn;" we therefore reproduce below, with 
the permission of the American Spawn Company, a fac-simile of 
the .original and only diploma for mushroom SjDawn awarded at 
that Exposition. 




Highest Award Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904 



produced in this country from cultivated mushrooms of known varieties, 
white or cream colored, and of even, big size, for which the highest prices are 
obtainable always because the demand is for this kind of mushroom. The 
difference between the ordinary spawn and Pure Culture Spawn is the dif- 
ference betAveen wild and cultivated seeds — the difference between guesswork 
and certain results — the difference between failure and success. 

It is to assure any one desiring to procure Pure Culture Spawn and truthful 
and complete information that the "Bureau of Mushroom Industry" has been 
established and located centrally in Chicago. 

THE SELECTION OF SPAWN 

Many dealers profess to scU "Selected Mushroom Spawn" that is selected 
by themselves. They will not, however, disclose their source of supply, and 
it is but natural to suppose that they will select the grade of spawn which yields 
them the largest margin of profit. It is human nature, and by some it is con- 
sidered good business. 



94 SPAWN AND SUPPLIES 

Since that time, important improvements have been brought 
to the manufacture of this spawn, and it is today unexcelled any- 
where in the world. The large commercial growers have practi- 
cally discarded all other forms or makes of spawn, since Lambert's 
Pure Culture Spawn, the only spawn raised from spore cultures, 
and true to color and variety, supplies them with that element 
of certainty which was so sadly lacking in the old-fashioned article. 
Genuine pure culture spawn absolutely eliminates all danger of 
raising poisonous mushrooms, and enables the grower to safely 
stamp his guarantee on every box of mushrooms delivered to his 
trade. 

The Bureau of Mushroom Industry has investigated all makes 
of spawn as well as the makers. It has foimd that Lambert's 
Pure Culture Spawn, as a high grade article, is not equaled by 



It has now been well established, however, that the experienced mushroom 
grower is not looking for cheap spawn; he will have none but fresh and the 
very best — he is looking for results. The commercial grower cannot afford 
to experiment with wild spawn which has been shipped across the ocean and 
killed in the close and hot hold of a slow freighter. For similiar reasons, 
loose or flake spawn has resulted, in most instances, in absolute failure. The 
loose te.cture of this spawn allows the "mycelium" to deteriorate and lose its 
vitality so rapidly that it will not stand transportation or storage. The 
brick is now considered the safest carrying medium for the delicate growth 
known as the "mycelium" of the spawn. 

After careful investigation and tests of the various makes of spawn on the 
market, the Bureau has found that the old adage is still true, "the best is 
the cheapest." Cheap spawn is worthless. 

The Bureau of Mushroom Industry has, therefore, also made a selection of 
spawn for its patrons, but it is willing to take them into its confidence. It 
has found but one grade of spawn which fully comes up to the high standard 
of its requirements. It is "Lambert's Pure Cidture Spawn," made by the 
American vSpawn Company. While this high-grade spawn is the dearest in the 
market, it is by far the best and therefore the cheapest, when measured by 
results. 

The makers of "Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn" were the fir.st to put in 
practice the important discover}'- of the pure culture method and, in collabora- 
tion with experts of the United States Department of Agriculture, have stead- 
ily improved these methods, until now their spawn stands alone in its class, 
unexcelled by any spawn in the world. They have recently introduced "spores" 
in their pure cultures, and the result has been such added vigor to the growth 
that mushrooms will appear on the beds and a total yield may be obtained in a 
much shorter time. 

The American Spawn Company does not retail its product. It is only 
obtained in limited quantities by a few leading seedsmen and dealers for the 
use of large commercial growers who are under contract to furnish mush- 
rooms at stated times and in certain quantities. These experienced men are 
thus eliminating all elements of uncertainty from their business, and enjoy 
a large and steady income, increasing every year. 

Notwithstanding the pressing demand for this spawn, the Bureau of Mush- 
room Industry has succeeded in arranging with the makers for a limited supply 
and has received assurances of an increased and continuous supply in the near 
future. 

We are, therefore, in a position to now supply our customers with this spawn 
in limited quantities, and in order to build a foundation for future and perman- 
ent relations with our patrons, we are for the present practically eliminating our 
margin of profit, and will sell "Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn" at prices 
quoted by many dealers for the inferior or worthless article. 



PURE CULTURE SPAWN 95 

any other spawn on the market, and that the standing of the ma- 
kers, the American Spawn Compr.iiy of St. Paul, Minn., in the 
business world is of the highest. The makers of this spawn do not 
retail it, and the demand for it still exceeds the supply notwith- 
standing the yearly increase in the output. This Bureau has suc- 
ceeded in arranging for its supply, which is offered at prices 
little in excess of the prices quoted for the low-grade article. 
Prices are F. 0. B. Chicago, when cash accompanies the order: 

7 bricks, sufficient for 50 sq. ft $ 2.00 

14 bricks, sufficient for 100 sq. ft 3.75 

28 bricks, sufficient for 200 sq. ft 6.00 

42 bricks, sufficient for 300 sq. ft 8.00 

80 bricks (3^ case) by freight, at 15 cents 12.00 

160 bricks (full case) or more in case lots, at 14c .... 22.40 
Estimate one brick for about 8 square feet of beds. 
This book, "The Cultivated Mushroom," is furnished free 
with the first order only for 7 or more bricks of spawn. 

Each brick of "Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn" measures 9 
inches in length, 534 inches in width and is about Ij^ inches thick. 
The weight may vary from 1 to Ij^ pounds per brick. 

Express Charges — Mushroom spawn is rated as seed, and is 
therefore carried by express companies at lowest rates. Express 
companies always meet postal rates. The parcel post law will 
therefore insure the very lowest rates obtainable. We watch 
express charges very carefully, and always secure the lowest. 

Remittances — Always remit by postoffice or express money 
order, or by registered mail. To personal checks or bank drafts, 
add 15 cents for exchange or cost of collecting it. 

Canada — There is no duty on spawn shipped into Canada. 
Address all orders to 
Bureau of Mushroom Industry 
1342 N. Clark St., Chicago, U. S. A. 



TRADEMARK. 

The phenomenal success of Lambert's spore cultures has brought into the 
market many cheap grades sold as "Pure Culture Spawn." They are even 
stamped with a close imitation of the trademark which appears on every brick 
of "Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn." The genuine article is stamped with the 
letters P C enclosed in a diamond^ — not a circle, heart or square. 




PC 



Realizing that the discovery of Pure Culture Spawn will soon result in th e 
abandonment of English and other forms of wild spawn, some importers of 
the old-fashioned wild spawn have attempted to meet the situation by offering 
such spawn, at a reduced price, under the name of "English Pure Culture" 
spawn. They are unable, however, to name the specific variety of mushrooms 
which this so-called "English Pure Culture" spawn will produce. Since that 
is the fundamental distinction between pure culture spawn and wild spawn, 
the deception is easily exposed. 



96 



SPAWN AND SUPPLIES 




The B. M. I. Improved 

Mushroom 

Thermometer 

Size, 14 Inches (Including Handle) 



For strength and durability, this 
thermometer is unexcelled. It has 
galvanized frame, black scale, wood 
handle and mercury bath. It is 
easily taken apart for cleaning pur- 
poses. It is specially designed to 
stand the wear and rough handling 
incident to hot-bed or mushroom 
growing. 



Price Postpaid, $1.50 



The B. M. I. 
Improved 

HYGROMETER 

2-inch dial; improved scale 
denoting humidity of the air 
without reference to any tables, 
nickel-plated case. Indispens- 
able to the mushroom grower. 

Price Postpaid, $1.25 

Address orders with remittance to 

Bureau of Mushroom Industry, 1342 No. Clark St., Chicago, U. S. A. 




SPRAYERS 



97 



NeAV Ideas In Spray 



will 




Pumps 

The "Kant-Klog" Sprayer 

JUNIOR No. 5 

We do away entirely with the objectionable 
foot-rest, clamps, leather suction, packing, etc. 
This pump recjuires no fastening of any kind, 
.holds itself down and works anywhere and 
"verywhere. All the operator need do is to 
press the plunger down. It rises of itself, 
the upward stroke being made by a brass spring 
forcing the cylinders apart. 

The all brass suction working within a brass 
cylinder with all Brass Valves, does away en- 
tirely with all lea' her, rubber, or other packing. 
It is practically impossible for any part to get 
out of order. Everything except handle and hose is Solid Brass. 
Is the easiest working and will do more diflferent kinds of work 
than any pump ever made. Will pump from a pail, barrel, 
trough, creek, spring, boat or sink. Without fastenings of any 
kind, it stands firmly wherever placed. 

Farmers with an ordinary amount of spraying put a barrel on 
their wagon, set this pump in the bunghole and spray their trees 
as easily and effectively as their neighbor who uses an outfit 
weighing and costing five times as much. This weighs less 
than four pounds. Makes two sizes of continuous spray and two 
of solid streams, has automatic mixer to keep solutions stirred, 
pleases everybody, lasts a lifetime, and will do more different 
kinds of work than any pump ever made. 

A good sprayer for whitewashing the mushroom house after 
a crop is indispensable to the mushroom grower, and this is the 
simplest, cheapest, and yet most effective device for that pur- 
pose on the market. 

BRASS EXTENSION 

PIPE 

' ==^j^ Brass Pipe, 3 feet long, 

with quarter inch stan- 
dard cut threads, needed 
ing the nozzle in tree spraying, whitewashing, etc. Several can be 
"^ther when desired. Price of pump, complete as shown in cut, 
ension pipe, by parcel post, prepaid $4.50 

Address orders with remittance to 



Bureau of Mushroom Industry 



S 



1342 No. Clark St., CHICAGO, U. S. A. 



98 



SPAWN AND SUPPLIES 



MUSHROOM BOXES (CARTONS) 

The time has passed when the mushroom grower could ship his 
mushrooms in any old package, cover it with a newspaper, tie 
it up with a string, and let it go at that. The public is now morp 
exacting and discriminating. An attractive package wili sel^ 
readily at a good price, while the unattractive basket Win gj ueg- 
ging and must be sold at a sacrifice. 

The fresh mushroom is a very perishable article and will not 
stand rehandling or repacking without injury and serious loss in 
grade. If shipped in bulk it becomes a third-grade article when 
repacked. The demand has therefore gradually become imperative 
for a package which will safely carry the fresh mushroom from 
grower to consumer. The following requirements of the trade 
must be met in any package. 

1. A standard size, made of one piece, small enough to avoid 
generally the necessity of repacking by commission men and gro- 
cers. The one-pound box seems to be most universally in demand 
by grocers and private consumers. For hotels and large consum- 
ers, the three-pound box is preferred. The one-pound box is 




LAMBERT S VENTILATED MUSHROOM BOX 
Paraffined 1-lb. size, oblong, 7?^x4x3 inches. 



made in two styles; the oblong shape, which is very attractive, for 
small and medium size mushrooms, and the square shape for large 
mushrooms. The three-pound box is made in the oblong shape 
only for all sizes of mushrooms. 



MUSHROOM BOXES 



99 



It is not advisable for mushroom growers to encourage the use 
of one-half pound or other boxes of odd sizes, as they are not in 
great demand, must be specially made and are therefore more ex- 
pensive. 





J 




• ■-,■- ^ -....-. • 

^ <S. .J.-. laola.Qlni mu.hr.^,.... <..,u,..«d 1. 


r 


\ 






J ■ / /linii 

s ■ ■ - 








^^^ 






f 


s 


A 


aigviisiHSJ 

^ suioojqsni^ qsajj ^ 




FRESH MUSHROOMS, GUARANTEED 

^^^vttndb^ Guaraoleed lo be rai&cd from 
^^^^^»«^ Lambert's Pure Culture Spawn 

lffiV|.J Absolutely Safe 


. 


{ 



ishroom box, knocked down for shipment. Weight, 105 lbs. per 1000 boxes. 



2. Ventilation is deemed essential to prevent rapid decaying 
which occurs in tight boxes. 

3. The natural moisture of the mushroom, which gives it a 
fresh appearance, must be preserved. This moisture is rapidly 
absorbed by the porous material of the ordinary carton, leaving the 
mushroom in a withered condition. This objection has been over- 
come by paraffining the inside of the box. 



100 



SPAWN AND SUPPLIES 



4. Cooking recipes, either printed on each box or furnished in 
loose fonn, are very welcome by the housewife. It is surprising 
how many people refrain from buying mushrooms because they do 
not know how to cook them. 

5. Guaranty as to safety. Fear of eating poisonous mushrooms 
is by far the greatest handicap now resting on the mushroom 
trade, and the press reports recording, almost daily, the death of 
some person after eating poisonous mushrooms contribute to 
this fear. Hundreds of thousands of people, who are now afiaid 
of mushrooms, would buy them under a reliable guarantee as 
to their safety. Before the discovery of Pure Culture Spawn no 
grower was in a position to give this guarantee. He could not 
even guess at the variety or color of his mushrooms before they 
appeared on his beds, and then they were far from being uniform 
in variety or color. The grower of mushrooms from genuine Pure 
Culture Spawn has therefore an assest of inestimable value and a 
lead over his competitors who are still using English and other 
forms of wild spawn, of which he should take full and immediate 
advantage. He can now boldly and safely guarantee his product 
and give good reasons. The public will invariably buy the guar- 
anteed mushrooms as against the article which cannot be guar- 
anteed and will soon compel the grocers to procure it. 

6. Price. The average grower cannot afford to buy an im- 
proved mushroom box in sufhciently large quantities to obtain a 
low price. A glance at the prices quoted below will show that we 
have successfully solved this problem. To that end we have had 
the dies and plates made (leaving name and address blank), 
paraffined the stock, and have the boxes manufactured and printed 
in very large quantities, necessitating only the additional print- 
ing of the name and address of the grower. We are thus in a 
position to give small and large growers, proportionately, the bene- 
fit of prices on very large quantities. 

Net prices of Lambert's Ventilated Mushroom Boxes, para- 
ffined, with printed cooking recipes, printed guarantee as to safety, 
and grower's name and address (prices F. O. B. St. Paul) : 



Quantity 


1-lb. Oblong. 


1-lb. Square. 


3-lb. Oblong. 


300 or less 


$3.50 


-13.50 


$7.00 


500 


4.25 


4.25 


10.00 


1000 


6.75 


6.75 


15.00 


2000 


12.50 


12.50 


29.00 


5000 


30.00 


30.00 


71.00 


10000 


55.00 


.55.00 


140.00 



Address orders to Bureau of Mushroom Industry, 

1342 No. Clark St.. Chicago, U. S. A. 



INDEX 



Acidity in manure 71 

Agaricus Campestris 7, 8 

Air, renewal of, density 14 

See Ventilation. 

Alkalinity in manure 71 

Amanita 86, 91 

Arsenic, for sowbugs 46 

Bacteria, in fermentation 17 

bacterial enemies 9 

Bacterial molds 45, 81 

Baked mushrooms 51 

Baskets, mushroom 33, 34, 35 

Beds, dormant 29, 30, 36 

when to bear 30, 36 

installation of 21, 24 

fiat beds 23, 25 

ridge beds 22, 23 

shelf beds 24 

Bisulphate of carbon 75 

Black spot 45 

Bordelaise mushrooms 53 

Boxes for shipping (cartons) .33, 98 

Brick spawn, see Spawn 42 

Broiled mushrooms 50 

Buttons 31 

Butyric Acid 71 

Campestris, Agaricus. 7, 8 

Canada, shipments to 95 

Canning of mushrooms 55 

Caps, rapid expansion 12 

cracked caps 13 

flat tops 31 

Carbon bisulphide 46, 75 

Carbon dioxide, see Carbonic 

Acid 14 

Carbolic Acid, as disinfectant ... 77 



Carbonic acid gas, 

thrown off 29, 26, 24, 8, 14 

density of 14 

See Ventilation 

Cartons (mushroom boxes) 98 

Casing 26, 28, 30 

moisture content 29, 30 

Caves 10, 48 

ventilation of 14 

Cellars 10,48,49 

ventilation of 14 

Centipede 46 

Chemical reactions 72 

in compost 18 

Clusters 33 

Clitocybe 46 

Cold frames 49 

Compost, preparation of. .16, 17, 59 

simple method for beginners. . . 20 

moisture content 18, 20, 24 

sawdust in compost 20 

chemical reactions 72 

Sec Manure 
Construction of mushroom 

houses 47, 81 

Cooking recipes 50 

Copper, sulphate of 46 

Coprinus 18, 31 

Crates 33, 36 

Creosote as disinfectant 77 

Crickets 81 

Cryptogams 8, 30 

Cultural requisites 8 

Curried mushrooms 53 

Custom duties to Canada 95 

Cyanid 79, 81 

Damping off 14, 30, 45, 29 

Devilled mushrooms 52 



INDEX— Cont. 



Diploma, for spawn 93 

Diastases 70 

Diseases of mushrooms 44 

Disinfectants 46 

Draughts, to be avoided .... 13, 16 

See Ventilation 

Dried Mushrooms 53 

English spawn 41, 42, 92 

Escalloped mushrooms 53 

Essential conditions 8 

Expended Beds 39 

Express charges 95 

Failure, causes of 9, 30 

sudden rise in temperature 

of bed 26, 30 

watering before casing 28 

See "Damping Off" 

Fermentation of manure 17 

Ferments in the transformation 

of the manure 70 

Flake Spawn, see Loose Spawn . . 94 
Florists as mushroom growers ... 39 

Fogging off 45 

Foreign Fungi 46, 81 

Foreign Molds 46 

Fried Mushrooms 51 

Fumigants 75 

Fumigating or disinfecting the 

house .21, 26 

Fumigation 45, 46 

Fungi, foreign 10, 18, 46 

coprinus comatus 18, 31 

MoniUa fimicola 29, 31 

Fungus diseases 45 

Gamasid (mite) 78 

Gnats 73, 75 

Grades of Mushrooms 37 

Greenhouses 49 

Guaranteed mushrooms 38 

Heating pipes 48,50 

Humus 61, 73 



Hydro-cyanide acid gas 79, 81 

Hygrometer, use of 13 

price-list 96 

Ink Caps, see Coprinus 

Insect Larvae in compost 45 

Insects 45, 73 

Larvae 46 

Lawns and pastures 40 

Lime 46,79,81 

Loam, in manure 20 

for casing 28 

Loose spawn 49, 92 

Lysol, for plaster mold 29 

Maggots 73 

Manure 63 

preparation of 63 

green manure 64 

greasy manure 64 

burnt manure 64 

how made up 64 

turnings, acidity 67, 69, 71 

selection of 17, 59, 60 

fermentation 17, 59 

ammonia 59 

straw 59 

composition of 59 

chemical reactions 60 

humus 61 

cellulose 61 

admixture of loam 20 

piles 17, 18 

See Compost 

Market Conditions 37 

Markets 31 

Microbes 81 

Mill track spawn 92 

Mines 48, 49 

Mites 46, 73, 75 



INDEX— Cont. 



Moisture, how supplied in 

house 12, 13, 28 

moisture content of man- 
ure 18, 20, 24, 29 

moisture content of casing .... 29 

Molds 45 

Molds, plaster mold 29, 31 

Mushroom boxes 98 

how made 98 

price-list 100 

Mushroom catsup 54 

Mushroom condiment 54 

Mushroom, cultivated 7 

Mushroom enemies 54 

See Insects 

Mushroom flies 73 

introduced with compost. .20, 21 
Mushroom house, construc- 
tion of 81 

screening 77 

temperature 9 

underground construction 47 

Mushroom patties 52 

Mushroom sandwiches 52 

Mushroom sauce 52 

Mushroom soup 52 

Mushroom spawn, see Spawn 

Mushrooms in oil 54 

Mycelium, see Spawn 

Nicotine as fumigant 75 

Old beds 38, 39 

Open- Air Culture 39, 40 

Ordering spawn 45 

Organized ferments 71 

Oxygen, assimilated by mush- 
rooms 8, 14, 24 

See Ventilation 

Paris Green 46, 81 

Parasitic molds or fungi 46 

Pastures, how inoculated 40 

Phora Minuta 46 



Picking 31, 32 

Pill Bugs 79 

Plaster Mold 29, 31, 36, 63 

Pleurotus 46 

Poisonous mushrooms, vSee 

Amanita 86, 91 

Preparing for market 31 

Preserved mushrooms. 53, 55, 56, 57 
Preserved mushrooms, Lambert 

process 54, 55 

Price list of spawn 95 

thermometers 96 

hygrometers 96 

sprayers 97 

mushroom boxes 100 

Prices of Mushrooms 37 

Puhach as a fumigant 79 

Pure Culture Spawn 41, 92 

highest award 93 

See Spawn 

Pyrethrum as fumigant 75, 79 

Quick Lime 46 

Remedies 46 

Roasted mushrooms 53 

Screening the mushroom house . . 77 

Selection of spawn 93 

Shaggy Mane, see Coprinus 

Shipping Mushrooms 35, 98 

spawn 95 

Snails 46 

Sorting the mushrooms 33 

Sowbug 46, 73, 79 

Spawn and suppUes 92 

Spawn, description of 41 

1 brick for 8 sq. ft 95' 

when planted 27 

when ordered 27 

when running 28 

storage of 27 

how planted 28 

vitality of 27 

brick spawn 27 

1 brick for 8 sq. ft 27, 95 

price list of 98 



JUN 30 1913 



INDEX— Cont. 



spawning 26 

Spent beds, scl- Expended Beds. .62 
Spore Culture, see Pure 
Culture Spawn 

Spores of foreign molds 46 

Sprayers 97 

Springtails 46, 73, 78 

Sprinkling, see Watei 

Stains 81 

Steaming compost 75, 78 

Stems, long 12 

Stewed Mushrooms 51 

Storage of spawn 43, 44 

Straw, in manure 17, 18 

Sulphur dioxide 81 

Sulphate of copper 46 

Sulphur 47 

Technical studies 59 

Temperature of mushroom 

house 9, 47 

of beds 26 



Tissue Culture, see Pure Culture 
Spawn 

Thermometer, use of . 26 

price-Hst 96 

Tobacco as a f umigant 75 

Trade Mark 95 

Tunnels 49 

ventilation of 14 

Urine, in manure 17 

Varieties of Mushrooms, 

brown 11, 35 

cream 15, 35 

white 19, 35 

Ventilation 14, 47, 49 

Virgin spawn, see Spawn 

Vitality of spawn 43, 44 

Walls of mushroom house 47 

Water, application 

of 9, 13,21,28,30,31 

damping off 14 

Wood lice 46, 79 

Yield per sq. ft 35, 36 



LOUIS P. DOW CO , mr paul 



LiBRft^"*. 



OF 



CO' 



iWGRE^i 



0®^ 



1W»325 9 



